UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


FROM   THE    LIBRARY   OF 

DR.  JOSEPH   LECONTE. 

GIFT  OF  MRS.   LECONTE. 
No. 


PRACTICAL    TREATISE 


COAL,    PETROLEUM, 


AND  OTHER  DISTILLED  OILS, 


BY  ABRAHAM  GESNER,  M.D.,  F.G.S. 


itioiT,  Ifrfciseb  ajib  (Enlarged 
BY  GEORGE  WELTDEN  GESNER, 

CONSULTING   CHEMIST   AND   ENGINEER. 


{Kautcm  and  William*  Welli,  Owned  by  Fountain  Petroleum  Co. 


NEW  YORK: 
BAILLlfiRE  BROTHERS,  520  BROADWAY. 


LONDON: 

II      BAILLIEEE, 
•219  REGENT  ST. 

.      MELBOURNE: 

F.     BAILLIEEE, 

•  COLLINS  ST.] 


PARIS : 

J.  B.  BAILLIEHE  ET  FILS, 
RUE  HAUTEFEUILLE. 

MADRID: 

C  .     B  A  I  L  L  Y  -  B  A  I  L  L  I  E  R  E 
CALLE  DEL  PKINCIPE. 


1865. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1865,  by 
BAILLIERE  BROTHERS, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the 
Southern  District  of  New  York. 


R.    CRAIGHEAD,    PRINTER, 
Si,  S3,  and  S5  Centre  Street,  New   YorJs 


PREFACE 


THE  work  before  the  reader  has  been  prepared  with  a  desire 
to  aid  the  manufacturer  of  distilled  oils  in  his  avocation,  and 
to  record  the  most  important  facts  regarding  the  various  raw 
materials  used  by  him.  To  assist  the  engineer  and  machinist, 
drawings,  taken  from  the  original  plans  used  by  the  author 
in  the  erection  of  petroleum  and  coal-oil  apparatus,  have  been 
inserted.  Original  drawings  of  petroleum  wells  and  boring 
tools  have  also  been  added,  to  convey  a  correct  idea  of  the 
mode  of  procuring  one  of  the  chief  articles  used  by  the  oil 
manufacturer.  A  great  deal  of  valuable  information  relating 
to  the  production  of  hydrocarbon  oils  is  scattered  throughout 
the  French,  German,  and  English  scientific  journals,  and  is 
contained  in  numerous  patents  to  which  the  public  have  not 
convenient  access.  The  information  collected  from  these 
sources  that  seemed  applicable  to  the  present  treatise,  has 
been  carefully  recorded.  The  author  of  the  first  edition  of 
the  work  left,  at  the  time  of  his  decease,  many  memoranda 
connected  with  it,  intending  to  insert  them  in  a  second 
edition.  The  author  of  the  present  edition  has  endeavored 
to  carry  out  his  father's  intentions  regarding  it,  and  has 
made  such  revisions  and  enlargements  as  seemed  called  for. 
Care  has  been  taken  to  present  such  facts  regarding 
petroleum  wells  and  petroleum  as  may  be  useful  to  those 
interested  in  them. 


101146 


IV  PREFACE. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  professional  chemist  may  find  in  this 
treatise  something  to  interest  him,  and  especially  as  regards 
the  homologous  compounds  of  carbon  and,  hydrogen,  and  the 
manipulation  of  a-niline.. 

59  WILLIAM  STREET,  NEW  YORK,  July,  1865. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Early  records  and  progress  of  the  distillation  of  oils  from  coals  and  other 
bituminous  substances. — Introduction  of  kerosene,  patents,  petroleum, 
varieties  of  coals  ;  their  origin  and  composition. — Effects  produced  upon 
coals  by  heat— Variety  of  oils  distilled  from  petroleum,  coals,  bitumen, 
etc. — Products  of  common  bituminous  coals,  etc. ? 

CHAPTER  II. 

Petroleum  of  the  United  States. — Theories  as  to  its  Origin. — Geological  Fea 
tures  of  the  Petroleum  Regions. — Petroleum  Wells.— Boring  for  Petroleum. 
— Boring  Tools  and  Machinery. — Petroleum  of  Canada,  South  America, 
Trinidad,  Barbadoes,  Burmah,  etc 16 

CHAPTER  III. 

Coal — Bituminous  Clays  and  Shales— Bitumen — Table  of  Volatile  Matter, 
Coke  and  Crude  Oil  from  Coals,  etc 44 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Nature  of  the  products  distilled  from  Bituminous  Substances. — Modes  of 
obtaining  Oils. — Retorts. — D-shaped  Retorts. — Revolving  Retorts. — Ver 
tical  Retorts. — Clay  Retorts. — Brick  Ovens. — Coke  Ovens. — Stills. — Con 
densers. — Agitators. — Super-heaters. 59 

CHAPTER  V. 

Products  of  the  distillation  of  wood,  coals,  asphaltum,  bitumen,  petroleum, 
and  other  substances  capable  of  yielding  oils. ' 89 


vi  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTEE  VI. 

Composition  of  distilled  oils. — Homologous  compounds. — Table  of  the 
same. — Compounds  of  Carbon  and  Hydrogen. — Gaseous  compounds. — 
Homologues  obtained  from  coal  tar,  coal,  bitumen,  caoutchouc,  etc.. .  .116 


CHAPTER  VII. 

Oxidation  of  the  impurities  contained  in  crude  hydro-carbon  oils. — A.ction  of 
acids,  alkalies,  and  other  agents. — Sulphuric  acid,  nitric  acid,  permanga 
nate  of  potash. — Methods  of  purification. — Extracts  from  patents,  etc.  .127 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

Buildings  and  Machinery. — Method  of  Manufacturing  and  Purifying  the  Oils 
distilled  from  Coals  and  other  Bituminous  Substances,  and  the  Products 
derived  therefrom. — Distilling  by  Steam. — Continual  Distillation. — Paraffin. 
— Lubricating  Oils. — Purification  of  Petroleum. — Petroleum  Refinery. — 
Estimate  of  Cost. — Hydrometer  and  Pyrometer. — Cements,  etc 146 


COAL,  PETROLEUM,  AND  OTHER  DISTILLED 

OILS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Early  records  and  progress  of  the  distillation  of  oils  from  coals  and  other 
bituminous  substances. — Introduction  of  kerosene,  patents,  petroleum, 
varieties  of  coals  ;  their  origin  and  composition. — Effects  produced  upon 
coals  by  heat. — Variety  of  oils  distilled  from  petroleum,  coals,  bitumenr 
etc. — Products  of  common  bituminous  coals,  etc. 

Lsr  a  treatise  devoted  to  the  manufacture  and  purification 
of  oils,  it  might  be  deemed  proper  to  consider  the  oleagi 
nous  substances  derived  from  the  animal  and  vegetable 
kingdoms;  but  the  present  treatise  is  intended  to  give  a 
descriptive  account  of  the  mineral  oils  only,  and  the 
modes  by  which  they  are  manufactured  and  purified. 

The  rapid  advances  made  during  the  last  fifteen  years  in 
developing  mineral  oils,  and  their  growing  importance  to  the 
world  for  illuminating,  and  various  other  purposes,  give 
them  a  value  not  rivalled  by  many  articles  of  commerce. 

The  ancient  inhabitants  of  different  parts  of  the  world, 
civilized  and  barbarous,  were  acquainted  with  those  natural 
oils  which  flow  from  the  earth,  namely,  mineral  oil,  or 
naphtha,  bitumen,  etc.  Herodotus,  the  Greek  historian, 
who  composed  his  history  440  years  before  Christ,  speaks 
of  a  place  called  Arderrica,  thirty-five  miles  from  Susa, 
where  there  were  wells  which  yielded  bitumen,  salt,. 


8  EAKLY  KECOEDS. 

and  oil.  In  place  of  a  bucket,  half  of  a  wineskin  was 
used  to  draw  the  product  of  these  wells,  which  was  per 
mitted  to  settle  in  tanks,  in  which  the  bitumen  and  salt 
collected  and  hardened,  the  oil  being  drawn  off  into  casks. 
The  oil  was  called  by  the  Persians  "  Ehadinace,"  was 
black,  and  had  an  unpleasant  odor. 

The  Persians,  Burmese,  and  other  nations  still  continue  to 
employ  those  substances  in  their  crude  state  to  give  light, 
and  for  medicinal  purposes.  As  early  as  1694  Eeele,  Han 
cock,  and  Portlock  made  "pitch,  tar,  and  oyle  out  of  a  land 
of  stone"  and  obtained  patents  therefor.  In  1761  oils  were 
distilled  from  black  bituminous  shale,  and  were  employed 
in  the  cure  of  certain  diseases,  as  stated  in  Lewis's  Materia 
Medica  for  that  year. 

More  than  a  century  ago  oils  were  obtained  by  the  dis 
tillation  of  coals,  but  the  purification  of  those  oils,  and 
their  application  to  the  common  requirements  of  life,  have 
been  slow  in  their  progress,  and  are  not  even  now  brought 
rto  perfection.  The  papers  of  .the  Koyal  Society  of  Lon- 
•don,  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  and  other  European 
.publications,  give  accounts  of  the  distillation  of  oils  from 
•coals  and  other  bituminous  substances.  In  1781  the  Earl 
of  Dundonald  obtained  oils  from  coals  by  submitting  them 
to  dry  distillation  in  coke  ovens,  like  those  employed  by 
.some  manufacturers  of  the  present  day  for  the  same  pur 
pose.  Laurent,  Beichenbach,  and  others  distilled  the  tars 
•obtained  from  bituminous  schists.  These  tars  were  purified 
in  some  degree  by  Selligue,  and  the  oils  subsequently 
obtained  an  extensive  sale  in  Europe  for  burning  in  lamps, 
and  for  lubricating  machinery.  Many  other  chemists  have 
from  time  to  time  contributed  improvements  in  the  purifi- 
•cation  of  hydrocarbon  oils. 

The  discovery  of  coal  gas  brought  a  new  class  of  oils  to 


PATENTS.  9 

the  notice  of  the  chemist,  but  the  purification  of  those  oils, 
and  their  application  to  useful  purposes,  have  been  but 
slowly  advanced.  ;*" 

The  first  successful  attempt  to  manufacture  oils  from 
coals  in  America  was  made  by  Dr.  Abraham  Gesner.  Oil 
from  coal  was  made  and  consumed  in  lamps  by  him  in  his 
public  lectures  at  Prince  Edward's  Island,  in  August,  1846, 
and  subsequently  at  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  accounts  of 
which  are  still  extant.  The  patents  afterwards  obtained 
for  his  improvements,  known  as  the  "  Kerosene  Patents," 
were  sold  to  the  North  American  Kerosene  Gas  Light  Com 
pany,  and  the  oils  were  manufactured  and  sold  under  the 
denomination  of  u  Kerosene  Oil."*  Several  patents, 
obtained  by  other  persons  at  later  dates,  are  but  modifica 
tions  of  the  modes  of  manufacture  previously  laid  down, 
and  contain  but  little  that  is  new  in  principle. 

The  retorts,  stills,  and  other  appliances  for  this  kind  of 
manufacture  have  been  constantly  varied,  and  have  not 
yet  been  so  perfected  as  to  meet  the  general  approval  of 
manufacturers.  In  a  future  chapter*  these  varieties  of 'appa 
ratus  will  be  described. 

Patents  were  granted  in  England,  in  1847,  to  Charles  B. 
Mansfield,  for  "  an  improvement  in  the  manufacture  and 
purification  of  spirituous  substances  and  oils  applicable  to 
the  purposes  of  artificial  light,"  etc.  Mr.  Mansfield's  ope 
rations  appear  to  have  been  chiefly  directed  to  the  coal  tar 
of  gas  works,  from  which  he  obtained  benzole.  He  was 
perhaps  the  first  to  introduce  the  benzole  or  atmospheric 
light,  which  is  described  at  length  in  his  specifications. 

James  Young,  of  Manchester,  secured  a  patent  in  England 
(Oct.  7,  1850),  and  subsequently  in  the  United  States 
(March  23,  1852),  for  "  the  obtaining  of  paraffine  oil,  or  an 

*  From  nrjpds,  wax,  and  ZXaiov,  oil. 


10  KEROSENE. 

011  containing  paraffine,    and  paraffine  from  bituminous 
coals."     These  patents  have  been  the  subject  of  much  dis 
cussion,  and  .law  proceedings  have*  been  instituted  by  Mr. 
Young  against  several  oil  companies  for  infringements  of 
his  alleged  rights. 

The  manufacture,  nevertheless,  extended  very  rapidly 
to  the  chief  cities  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  and  of  the 
coal  districts  of  the  interior.  The  great  cheapness  of  the 
oil  procured  by  the  distillation  of  petroleum  has,  however, 
almost  caused  the  coal  distillation  to  be  suspended.  It 
will  only  be  resumed  when  the  petroleum  wells  cease  to 
yield  sufficient  oil  for  the  various  purposes  to  which  it  is 
now  applied.  From  a  calculation  made  in  1861,  it  was 
shown  that  whenever  crude  petroleum  reached  an  average 
price  of  thirty-five  cents  per  gallon  in  the  American 
markets,  the  coal  oil  distiller  could  afford  to  resume  busi 
ness.  It  is  not  at  all  probable  that  any  claims  of  patentees 
which  seek  to  monopolize  the  distillation  of  coal  for  oil 
making,  will  be  enforced,  should  the  time  again  arrive 
when  such  distillation  can  be  profitably  carried  on. 

The  progress  of  discovery  in  this  case  has  been  gradual. 
It  has  been  carried  on  by  the  labors,  not  of  one  mind,  but 
of  many,  so  as  to  render  it  difficult  to-  discover  to  whom 
the  greatest  credit  is  due.  It  is,  notwithstanding,  just  to 
admit,  that  from  the  facts  disclosed  in  the  before-mentioned 
patents,  a  spirit  of  inquiry  was  aroused,  and  experiments 
were  multiplied. 

The  introduction  into  common  use  in  America  of  oils 
distilled  from  coal,  bitumen,  and  incidentally  petroleum, 
was  accomplished  by  the  North  American  Kerosene  Gas 
Light  Company  of  New  York,  in  the  early  part  of  1854. 
This  Company  was  formed  to  work  under  the  Kerosene 
Patents,  and  Messrs.  John  H.  Austen  and  George  W.  Aus- 


KEROSENE.  11 

ten,  the  agents  of  the  Company,  first  sold  the  oil  produced 
by  the  patentee  at  the  Company's  works  on  New  town 
Creek,  Long  Island,  N.  Y.,  under  the  name  of  "  kero 
sene."  The  Messrs.  Austen  found  great  difficulty  in 
selling  the  oil.  The  refining  process  was  not  so  well  un 
derstood  at  that  time  as  at  present,  and  the  odor  was  not 
agreeable.  The  beauty  of  the  light  obtained  from  it,  how 
ever,  was  sufficient  to  gradually  overcome  the  objection  on 
^the  score  of  odor.  Its  supposed  explosiveness  was  also 
urged  against  it  by  those  interested  in  the  camphene  and 
burning  fluids.  These  two  latter  are  very  explosive  com 
pounds,  but  that  fact  was  overlooked  by  the  opponents  of 
kerosene,  which,  as  it  was  originally  manufactured  by  Dr. 
Gesner,  was  quite  as  safe  an  article  as  ordinary  whale 
oil. 

There  was  a  serious  drawback  to  the  general  use  of  kero 
sene  in  the  want  of  a  cheap  and  proper  lamp  in  which  to 
burn  it  To  John  H.  Austen,  Esq.,  is  due  the  credit  of 
supplying  this  very  necessary  adjunct  to  the  -coal-oil  busi 
ness.  This  gentleman  found  in  Vienna  a  burner  which 
was  suited  to  light  hydrocarbon  oils,  and  under  the  name  of 
the  "  Vienna  burner  "  brought  it  into  use.  This  burner  has 
formed  the  model  upon  which  great  numbers  of  patents  have 
been  framed.  It  has  not  always  been  improved  by  inventors. 

With  a  view  to  a  'proper  arrangement  of  the  subject, 
various  materials  capable  of  yielding  oil  by  distillation  will 
be  considered  in  regular  order. 

The  chief  of  these  are  petroleum,  bitumen  or  asphaltum, 
eoals,  bituminous  shales,  sands  and  clays,  peat,  caoutchouc, 
gutta  percha,  and  the  tars  produced  in  the  manufacture  of 
stearine. 

When  organic  bodies  are  exposed  to  heat,  with  the  free 
admission  of  air,  they  undergo  combustion.  The  greater 


12  EFFECTS  OF  HEAT. 

part  of  the  carbon  is  expelled  in  smokeT  or  in  carbonic 
acid,  the  hydrogen  in  water,  or  carburetted  hydrogen,  and 
the  nitrogen,  if  any  be  present,  escapes  in  some  compound 
of  ammonia  ;  but  if  those  substances  have  heat  applied  to 
them  in  close  vessels,  there  are  new  results,  and  a  greater 
interchange  of  elements  takes  place. 

In  1780  Hales  distilled  substances  to  discover  if  they 
contained  air.  In  1773  the  same  gentleman  and  Dr.  Wat 
son  obtained  gas  from  coals,  and  in  1786  Lord  Dundonald 
burned  the  gas  that  arose  from  his  coke  ovens  at  the  ends 
of  iron  pipes  for  the  amusement  of  his  friends.  In  1792 
Mr.  Murdoch  commenced  lighting  buildings  with  coal  gas, 
and  since  that  period  gas  lighting  has  been  extended  to 
every  quarter  of  the  globe.  Besides  the  gas  employed  for 
illumination,  it  was  thus  early  observed,  that  other  gases 
and  oils  were  produced  by  the  distillation  of  coals.  The 
discovery  of  coal  oils  is  therefore  as  old,  if  not  older,  than 
the  discovery  of  coal  gas,  and  cannot  now  be  justly  claimed 
by  any  living  man. 

The  discovery  of  coal  oils  has  led,  no  doubt,  to  the  dis 
covery  of  the  value  of  petroleum,  and  those  bituminous 
substances  most  resembling  it. 

When  substances  composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and 
oxygen  are  submitted  to  dry  distillation,  the  first  effect  is 
to  remove  oxygen  from  the  body  in  the  form  of  carbonic 
acid,  or  water.  After  the  oxygen  has  been  removed  car 
bon  and  hydrogen  escape,  as  carburetted  hydrogen,  or 
olefiant  gas.  If  some  of  the  acids  are  distilled  they  lose 
oxygen  in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid  and  water,  and  are 
converted  into  new  acids.  Organic  acids  distilled  with 
strong  bases  part  with  the  elements  of  carbonic  acid,  which* 
uniting  with  the  base  and  the  acid,  minus  the  carbonic 
acid,  comes  over  in  the  form  of  a  new  product. 


EFFECTS   OF  HEAT.  13 

If  a  quantity  of  coals  be  placed  in  a  suitable  retort,  with 
a  condensing  apparatus  attached,  and  heat  be  gently  and 
gradually  applied  thereto,  the  first  result  will  be  the  escape 
of  water  in  the  form  of  vapor,  or  steam,,  and  frequently 
mixed  with  an  extremely  light,  volatile,  and  inflammable 
hydro-carbon,  which  is  but  partially  condensable  into  a 
spirit,  or  oil.     The  hygroscopic  water  contained  in  the  coal 
appears  in  the  form  of  vapor,  sometimes  mixed  with  car 
bonic  acid,  and  if  the  coal  contained  nitrogen  ammonia  is 
among  the  products.    Then  as  the  heat  is  increased  a  series 
of  oils   of  different  specific  gravities  are  condensed,  the 
lightest  or  first  distilled  having  the  character  of  a  spirit 
rather  than  an  oil ;  finally,  when  the  heat  has  been  raised 
to  750°  or  800°  Fah.,  gas,  free  carbon,  and  a  number  of 
pyrogenous  substances  appear,  known  as  dead  oil,  which 
mixes  mechanically  with  the  aqueous  products,  and  settles 
to  the  bottom  of  the  receiving  vessel.      Throughout  the 
distillation  more  or  less  water,  formed  by  the  oxygen  and 
hydrogen  present,  continues  to  flow.     Usually  in  proper 
retorts  the  oils  will  all  distil  over  at  a  temperature  of  750° 
Fah.     A  higher  degree  of  heat  produces  permanent  gases 
from  any  volatile  matter  that  may  remain  in  the  charge ; 
but  besides  the  elements  before-mentioned,  coal  frequently 
contains  sulphur  and  other  minerals,  which,  by  entering 
into  new  combinations  during  the  distillation,  yield  other 
compounds,  the  modus  operandi  of  whose  formation  is  not 
well  understood.     In  the  retort  there  remains  a  quantity 
of  fixed  carbon,  or  coke,  united  to  the  ash,  which  usually 
consists  of  silica,  alumina,  lime,  and  the  oxides  of  manga 
nese  and  iron. 

The  results  here  described  are  greatly  modified  by  the 
kind  of  coals  used,  the  degree  of  heat  applied,  and  the 
mode  by  which  the  oleaginous  vapors  are  condensed.  The 


14  EFFECTS  OF  HEAT. 

shape  of  the  retort,  the  weight,  or  thickness  of  the  charge, 
and  the  position  and  size  of  the  discharge-pipe,  also  have 
an  influence  over  the  yield  of  oil,  and  the,  time  required 
for  its  production. 

In  general,  coals  which  yield  the  greatest  amount  of 
volatile  matters,  exclusive  of  hygroscopic  moisture,  afford 
the  most  oils,  and  estimates  are  often  formed  of  their  value 
by  a  simple  test  of  the  weight  of  matter  expelled  by  the 
application  of  a  moderate  degree  of  heat.  The  test,  how 
ever,  is  often  delusive,  as  some  coals  expel  much  more  free 
carbon  during  the  distillation  than  others,  and  the  sulphur 
contained  in  coal  adds  nothing  to  the  oil,  while  it  consti 
tutes  a  part  of  its  volatile  products.  Nor  does  such  a  test 
afford  much  information  regarding  the  quality  of  the  oils 
a  given  quantity  of  coal  will  supply.  A  long  smoky 
flame  is  indicative  of  much  free  carbon,  a  shorter  and  more 
luminous  flame  denotes  that  there  will  be  much  fixed  car 
bon  in  the  coke.  Some  varieties  of  coals  are  peculiarly 
adapted  to  the  manufacture  of  gas,  as  their  chief  products 
by  heat  are  carburetted  and  bicarburetted  hydrogen  ;  such 
coals  do  not  alwavs  contribute  the  most  oils. 

«/ 

It  is  of  the  utmost  consequence  to  the  manufacturer  of 
coal  or  petroleum  oils  to  know  the  quality  as  well  as  the 
quantity  of  the  oils  any  one  material  will  afford.  For  this 
the  only  reliable  test  is  to  submit  the  material  to  dry  dis 
tillation,  and  the  whole  process  by  which  the  oils  are  . 
purified. 

It  will  be  seen  hereafter  that  coals,  coal  shales,  asphal- 
tums,  petroleums,  and  other  bituminous  substances,  yield 
not  one,  two,  or  three  oils ;  but  series  of  homologous  com 
pounds.  Some  members  of  these  series  are  of  high  specific 
gravity,  some  of  low,  or,  as  the  oils  are  called,  heavy  and 
light ;  the  light  being  eupion,  or  benzole,  the  heavy  tne 


PETR9LEUM,    BITUMEN,    ETC.  15 

oil  pressed  from  paraffin,  and,  finally,  the  solid,  as  paraffin, 
napbtbalin,  etc. 

These  several  series  of  hydrocarbons  are  greatly  influ 
enced  by  the  heat  employed  in  their  distillations,  the  con 
densers,  and,  finally,  their  mode  of  treatment.  Again, 
there  are  not  two  kinds  of  coal  that  will  give  the  same 
products,  even  by  the  same  modes  of  manufacture.  Some 
yield  much  light,  others  much  heavy  oil ;  some  send  over 
muck  paraffin,  and  what  are  called  by  manufacturers 
impurities,  namely,  naphthalin,  carbolic  acid,  copnomor, 
etc.,  ever  attending  the  distillates. 

Few  common  bituminous  coals  can  be  successfully 
employed  in  the  oil  manufactory ;  their  distillates  abound 
in  creosote,  or  carbolic  acid,  and  their  purification  is  e£pen- 
sive.  The  modes  of  refining  the  oils  from  petroleum,  coal, 
bitumen,  and  other  bituminous  substances,  will  be  given 
in  their  proper  places.  For  the  present  the  author  will 
confine  himself  as  much  as  possible  to  the  description  of 
the  various  substances  capable  of  yielding  oil  by  distilla 
tion,  beginning  with  petroleum. 


16  PETROLEUM  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES. 


CHAPTER  II. 

Petroleum  of  the  United  States. — Theories  as  to  its  Origin. — Geological  Fea 
tures  of  the  Petroleum  Regions. — Petroleum  Wells. — Boring  for  Petroleum. 
— Boring  Tools  and  Machinery. — Petroleum  of  Canada,  South  America, 
Trinidad,  Barbadoes,  Bur m  ah,  etc. 

| 

ALTHOUGH  petroleum  has  been  known  to  exist  in  various 
parts  of  the  world  for  centuries,  it  was  not  until  the  oils 
derived  from  the  distillation  of  coal  and  bitumen  had  been 
brought  into  use,  that  the  attention  of  the  business  world 
was  attracted  by  it.  Now  that  its  value  is  becoming  appre 
ciated,  the  petroleum-producing  portions  of  the  globe  are 
being  rapidly  explored,  and  it  is  not  at  all  improbable  that 
discoveries  even  more  wonderful  than  those  of  the  past 
seven  years  may  reward  the  efforts  of  those  who  are  ven 
turing  time  and  means  in  searching  for  this  very  important 
hydrocarbon. 

The  petroleum  wells  of  the  United  States  claim,  from 
their  number  and  productiveness  at  the  present  time,  the 
chief  place  in  a  work  devoted  to  the  history  and  chemical 
treatment  of  petroleum  and  coal  oils. 

Petroleum  has  long  been  known  to  exist  in  the  State  of 
New  York.  Under  the  name  of  "  Seneca  Oil"  which  it 
derived  from  an  Indian  tribe,  petroleum  was  formerly  col 
lected  in  Chautauque  County,  1ST.  Y.,  and  in  Crawford 
County,  Pennsylvania,  and  sold  for  medicinal  purposes. 
It  is  not  improbable  that  the  country  lying  beyond  the 
Alleghanies  in  New  York,  may  yet  be  found  rich  in  petro 
leum.  Pennsylvania  is  the  largest  oil  producing  state. 
Ohio  is  also  yielding  largely.  West  Virginia  has  produced 


PETROLEUM.  17 

a  large  quantity.  Kentucky  bids  fair  to  equal  her  sister 
states  in  the  petroleum  production.  Tennessee,  Georgia, 
Alabama,  Missouri,  and  Texas,  are  known  to  contain  petro 
leum  springs.  Sour  Pond,  so  called  from  the  circumstance 
that  during  part  of  the  year  the  waters  are  acid  to  the  taste, 
is  a  pitch  lake  resembling  that  of  Trinidad.  It  is  between 
Beaumont  and  Liberty  in  the  latter  state. 

Arkansas  and  Missouri  are  rich  in  bituminous  sands, 
shales,  and  clays.  Petroleum  has  been  found  in  Illinois, 
Indiana,  and  Michigan. 

From  recent  explorations,  it  would  seem  that  California 
is  capable  of  yielding  an  enormous  quantity  of  petroleum. 
The  existence  of  asphaltum  and  semi-solid  bitumen  at 
Santa  Barbara  in  Southern  California,  had  been  known 
since  1792,  but  no  generally  published  account  of  the 
extent  of  the  deposit  was  had  until  its  survey  by  Professor 
Silliman  in  1864. 

It  has  afforded  much  interest  to  the  geologists  and 
chemists  of  the  day,  to  ascertain  from  the  geology  of  the 
petroleum  districts,  the  origin  of  petroleum  itself. 

Were  the  petroleum  now  produced  by  the  various  wells 
of  the  same  quality,  and  the  strata  from  which  they  are 
derived  of  the  same  character,  the  obstacles  in  the  way  of 
reasoning  out  a  theory  of  their  origin  would  be  very  much 
removed.  But  even  the  petroleums  of  the  United  States 
alone  differ  materially,  as  will  be  hereafter  seen. 

The  theory  that  the  petroleum  of  Canada,  which  occurs 
in  the  older  Silurian  rocks,  is  derived  from  the  decomposi 
tion  of  vast  numbers  of  marine  animals,  is  not  an  unrea 
sonable  one.  In  distillation  the  Canada  petroleums  yield 
acroleine,  an  oil  which  is  obtained  from  animal  oils  and  fats. 
The  vapor  of  acroleine  is  very  pungent,  and  attacks  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  throat  and  lungs,  causing  great 


18  ORIGIN  OF  PETROLEUM. 

irritation.     Fish   oils  yield  it  by  distillation.     It  is  not 
found  in  the  petroleums  of  Pennsylvania. 

It  is  remarked  by  a  learned  writer  of  the  day,  that  "  the 
transformation  of  woody  fibre  into  oil  is  a  chemical  change, 
taking  place  always  out  of  contact  with  atmospheric  air 
and  usually  under  water,  but  by  no  means  necessarily  con 
nected  with  auy  particular  geological  period,  as,  for  exam 
ple,  the  coal  epoch,  with  which  many  intelligent  people 
associate  it." 

During  the  passage  of  vegetable  substances  into  coal, 
there  is  an  escape  of  vast  quantities  of  carbon  combined 
with  hydrogen.  It  is  only  necessary  that  the  gases  of  these 
elements  should  be  condensed  to  produce  hydrocarbon  oils. 
The  operation  is  a  decomposing  and  a  combining  one,  and 
the  new  combinations  formed  during  the  transmutation  of 
wood  into  coal,  have  a  close  analogy  to  those  produced 
during  the  distillation  of  wood  without  the  admission  of 
air.  The  gases  generated  in  strata  of  coal  and  coal  strata, 
are  always  under  great  pressure,  which  tends  to  their  con 
densation  and  consequent  formation  of  oil. 

That  coal  has  been  derived  from  vegetables  is  undoubted. 
Peat  and  wood  are  found  to  pass  by  insensible  shades  into 
lignite,  lignite  into  compact  bituminous  coal,  and  the  end 
of  the  transformation  appears  in  the  anthracite,  from  which 
nearly  all  the  hydrogen  has  been  expelled  and  carbon 
remains. 

From  the  expulsion  of  oxygen,  carbon,  and  hydrogen 
from  wood,  and  the  variety  which  it  presents  until  it  forms 
true  coal,  heat  has  not  been  absolutely  necessary,  although 
it  has  doubtless  exercised  a  powerful  influence  in  connexion 
with  those  chemical  changes  ever  going  forward  in  the 
earth. 

The  condensation  of  carbon  and  hydrogen  producing  oil, 


THEORIES.  19 

and  the  fact  of  strata  of  coal  and  shale  before  they  reach 
the  maximum  of  carbonization  giving  out  these  elements  in 
great  quantities  under  pressure,  and  the  tendency  of  these 
;  gases  and  oils  to  diffuse  themselves,  are  fair  reasons  for 
finding  the  oil  in  formations  bearing  no  traces  of  vege 
tables. 

Many  theories  have  been  advanced  regarding  the  origin 
of  petroleum.  By  one  writer  it  is  supposed  that  "the 
petroleum  of  Pennsylvania  arises  from  the  distillation  by 
subterranean  heat  of  the  hydrocarbon  agents  resident  in  the 
carbonaceous  strata  underlying  the  oil  region."  By  another, 
"  that  the  great  beds  of  anthracite  coal  of  Pennsylvania,  on 
the  southerly  slope  of  the  Alleghanies,  are  merely  the 
residuary  coke,  as  it  were,  of  a  distilling  process,  which  has 
converted  their  bituminous  matter  into  oil,  and  distributed 
it  by  some  convulsion  of  the  earth  through  the  formation 
beyond  the  mountain  range." 

So  far,  however,  as  research  has  gone,  it  has  failed  to 
present  a  theory  acceptable  to  all.  It  must  be  agreed,  how 
ever,  that  all  petroleum  could  not  have  had  precisely  the 
same  origin,  and  that  a  theory  which  might  fairly  apply  to 
the  origin  of  the  petroleum  of  one  district,  would  not  at  all 
apply  to  that  of  another. 

In  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio  the  petroleum  is  found  in  the 
Devonian  formation.  In  Canada,  it  is  found  in  the  Silu 
rian  limestone.  In  Pennsylvania,  alternate  beds  of  the 
Utica  slate  and  sandstone  are  pierced  by  the  boring  tools. 
The  evidences  of  great  disturbance  of  the  strata  are  nu 
merous.  In  West  Virginia,  they  are  seen  in  the  anticli 
nal  ridges  which  traverse  the  petroleum  region.  At  the 
base  of  these  ridges,  and  where  the  surface  indicates  the 
greatest  disturbance  beneath,  the  petroleum  wells  are  usu 
ally  located. 


20  PETROLEUM  WELLS. 

In  the  sandstone  beds  there  are  large  cavities  filled  with 
petroleum,  gas,  and  water,  and  when  these  are  reached  by 
the  boring  tools,  there  is  a  great  and  violent  escape  of  their 
contents  until  they  have  become  exhausted.  It  sometimes 
happens  that  two  wells  near  together  will  enter  the  same  cre 
vice,  and  either  the  sooner  exhaust  the  supply  of  petroleum, 
or  drain  it  away,  the  one  from  the  other. 

As  the  formation  of  petroleum  in  the  earth  is  a  slow  pro 
cess,  it  is  not  probable  that  the  supply  can  keep  pace  with 
the  demand  made  upon  it  where  the  wells  are  sent  down  too 
near  together.  None  of  the  wells  have  continued  to  flow 
for  any  great  length  of  time. 

PETROLEUM    WELLS. 

The  most  productive  are  situated  in  the  northwestern 
part  of  Pennsylvania,  in  Yenango,  Crawford,  Clarion,  and 
adjoining  counties.  A  large  area  of  country  between  Pitts- 
burg  and  Lake  Erie,  and  that  portion  of  it  drained  by  the 
Alleghany  River  and  its  tributaries,  Oil  Creek,  French 
Creek,  Tionesta  Creek,  and  smaller  streams,  has  been  found 
to  yield  petroleum.  Beaver  County,  Pennsylvania,,  near 
the  Ohio  Eiver,  has  also  become  known  as  an  oil-producing 
region.  The  locality  known  as  Smith's  Ferry  has  been 
successfully  explored  for  oil.  In  West  Virginia  the  coun 
ties  of  Pleasant,  Ritchie,  Wood,  and  Wirt,  comprise  the 
oil  region.  They  are  near  or  bordering  upon  the  Ohio 
River,  and  are  drained  by  the  Little  Kanawha  and  Goose, 
French,  Bull,  Horseneck,  Calf,  and  Stilwell  Creeks.  The 
Ohio  petroleum  district  is  principally  in  Washington,  No 
ble,  and  Morgan  Counties,  on  the  Great  and  Little  Musk- 
ingum,  and  on  various  other  streams,  such  as  Duck  Creek, 
Paupaw,  Wolf,  and  Federal  Creeks.  In  Indiana  petroleum 
is  found  on  Little  Blue  River,  in  Crawford  County.  In 


PETROLEUM  WELLS.  21 

the  other  States  before  mentioned,  petroleum  wells  are  in 
progress.  The  California  and  Kentucky  petroleum  regions 
will  no  doubt  soon  add  greatly  to  the  supply. 

The  introduction  of  petroleum  into  market  took  place 
about  three  year's  after  the  oils  obtained  from  coal  had  been 
in  use.  Professor  Silliman  analysed  a  sample  in  1854.  An 
oil  for  lamps,  called  Carbon  oil,  was  introduced  in  the  New 
York  market,  by  A.  C.  Ferris,  Esq.,  in  1857.  It  was  at 
first  sold  after  being  distilled,  but  not  treated,  but  was 
afterwards  refined.  It  was  procured  from  an  old  salt  well 
at  Tarentum,  on  the  Alleghany,  not  far  from  Pittsburg, 
where  it  was  found  in  such  quantities  as  seriously  to  inter 
fere  with  the  salt  manufacture. 

The  boring  of  petroleum  wells  was  begun  by  Mr.  E.  L. 
Drake,  who  began  a  well  at  Titusville,  on  Oil  Creek,  Penn 
sylvania,  in  1858.  Mr.  Drake  was  at  first  not  successful 
in  finding  the  petroleum  at  the  depth  which  it  was  sup 
posed  was  sufficient,  but  persevered,  and  at  last  struck  a 
fine  vein  of  petroleum. 

Since  that  time  the  business  of  procuring  it  has  become 
one  of  the  most  extensive  in  America.  More  than  four 
hundred  Petroleum  Companies  have  been  formed.  Many 
of  these  companies  may  not  succeed  in  their  efforts  to  ob 
tain  oil,  and  many  of  them  may  never  practically  set  about 
the  business  of  sinking  oil  wells,  but  enough  will  remain 
to  develop  thoroughly  the  oil  region  of  the  United  States.* 

The  estimated  yield  of  petroleum  at  the  present  time  by 

*  Remarkable  success  has  in  some  instances  rewarded  the  enterprise  of 
Petroleum  Companies.  Among  them  may  be  named  the  McKinley  Oil  Com 
pany  of  New  York.  This  Company  paid  twenty-two  per  cent,  in  dividends 
upon  a  capital  stock  of  $250,000  within  a  period  of  four  months.  The 
frontispiece  to  this  work  represents  a  view  of  a  portion  of  the  Company's 
property. 


22 


EXPORT  OF  PETROLEUM. 


the  oil  wells  of  the  United  States  is  6000  barrels,  or  240,000 
gallons  per  day.  Though  certain  wells  have  for  a  short 
period  yielded  1000  barrels  or  40,000  gallons  per  day,  and 
even  more  than  that  quantity,  the  average  yield  of  all  will 
not  be  much  over  5  barrels,  or  200  gallons  per  day.  An 
oil  well  yielding  100  barrels,  or  4,000  gallons  per  day,  is 
not  a  common  thing  to  find  in  the  oil  region ;  half  that 
quantity  would  be  considered  a  very  good  yield. 

THE   EXPORT   OF   PETROLEUM. 

The  following  statement  shows  the  export  of  petroleum 
from  the  United  States  to  all  parts  of  the  world : 


From  New  York  to 
Liverpool, 
London, 
Glasgow,  etc.    . 
Bristol, 

Falmouth,  E.,    . 
Grangemouth,  E , 
Cork,  etc., 
Bowling,  E., 
Havre, 
Marseilles, 
Cette, 
Dunkirk, 
Dieppe,  » 

Rouen, 

Antwerp,      -  •••   . 
Bremen, 
Amsterdam, 
Hamburgh, 
Rotterdam,       . 
Gottenburg, 
Cronstadt, 
Cadiz  and  Malaga, 


1364. 

1863. 

Gallons. 

Gallons, 

734,755 

2,156,851 

1,430,710 

2,576,331 

368,402 

414,943 

29,134 

71,912 

316,402 

623,176 

425,334 

8,310,362 

1,532,257 

87,164 



2,324,017 

1,774,890 

1,982,075 

1,167,893 

4,800 

232,803 



79,581 

46,000 



143,646 

4,149,821 

2,692,974 

971,905 

903,004 

77,041 

436 

1,186,080 

1,446,155 

532,926 

757,240 

38,813 

400,376 

88,069 

55,674 

33,284 

EXPORT  OF  PETROLEUM. 


23 


Tarragona  and  Alicante, 

16;823 

33,000 

Barcelona,        .... 

25,500 

, 

Gibraltar,         .        . 

69,181 

308,450 

Oporto,             .... 

17,474 

2,339 

7,983 

57,115 

Genoa  and  Leghorn, 

635,121 

399,674 

Trieste,            •     ;  •      ". 

165,175 

3,000 

Alexandria,  Egypt,     •    . 

4,000 

. 

Lisbon,            ..    ~  '.   -  .,  '„ 

167,195 

64,662 

Canary  Islands,       .  . 

3,358 

5,125 

Madeira, 

.  

400 

Bilboa, 

2,500 

- 

China  and  East-Indies,         .    . 

34,388 

36,942 

Africa,             . 

25,195 

12,230 

Australia,         .         .        . 

377,884 

304,166 

Otago,  N.  Z.,           ".        . 

10,810 

5,500 

Sidney,  N.  S.  W.,            .        . 

97,880 

43,012 

Brazil,     .        .        . 

149,676 

160,152 

Mexico,           .        . 

112,986 

69,481 

Cuba, 

418,034 

356,436 

Argentine  Republic,         .        . 

20,260 

24,470 

Cisalpine  Republic,          .        . 

78,552 

117,626 

Chili        

92,550- 

(*f>  KK.f\ 

DDjOOU 

Peru        ..... 

169,061 

f)f(*   A(\>7 

British  Honduras, 

-      6,072 

440 

British  Guiana,        .         .        .    , 

7,881 

15,104 

British  West-Indies,     "  ., 

70,976 

60,931 

British  N.  Am.  Colonies,  ^ 

28,902 

16,995 

Danish  West-Indies, 

8,463 

31,503 

Dutch  West-Indies, 

26,638 

12,143 

French  West-Indies, 

16,020 

9,104 

Hayti,    ...        .       .;       . 

7,088 

12,064 

Central  America,     . 

993 

456 

Venezuela,               .        .        . 

28,583 

15,455 

New-Granada, 

57,490 

107,837 

Porto  Rico,     .... 

20,020 

59,439 

Total  gallons, 


21,288,499         19,547,604 


SECTION  OF  PETROLEUM  WELL. 


Soil. 
30  F* 


Section  of  Petroleum  Well,  Oil  Creek,  Pennsylvania. 


MODE  OF  LEASING  OIL  LANDS.  25 

The  following  is  the  quantity  exported  from  other  ports, 
January  1  to  December  31 : 

1864.  1863. 

From  Boston,       :  .           Gallons    1,696,308  2,043,431 

From  Philadelphia,         ,        "         7,760,148  6,595,738 

From  Baltimore,     .        ..    :  -.*             929,671  915,896 

From  Portland,      V      .«,        "              70,762  342,082 


Total  .        ,        "       10,457,188    *      8,703,117      . 

Total  export  from  U.  S.,          "       31,755,687         28,250,721 
Same  time  in  1862,         .        4l  gallons   10,887,701 

The  diagram  opposite  will  serve  to  give  some  idea  of  the 
rocks  pierced  by  the  oil  wells  and  their  relative  situation. 
The  depths  at  which  the  sandstone  is  met  vary,  as  also  does 
the  thickness  of  the  slate.  The  third  sand  rock  of  the  oil 
region  is  found  to  be  the  most  fruitful  in  oil.  In  this  rock 
the  greatest  flowing  wells  have  been  found,  though  oil  fre 
quently  accompanies  the  boring  all  the  way  from  the  first 
sand  rock.  The  usual  depth  at  which  oil  is  found  is  at  400 
to  600  feet  Many  deeper  wells  are  in  progress  of  boring. 
One  is  stated  to  have  gone  down  1200  feet* 


MODE   OF  LEASING  OIL  LANDS. 

In  most  cases  the  landowner  leases  for  30  years  the  right 
to  raise  the  oil,  and  such  right  of  way  as  may  be  necessary, 
for  a  royalty  of  from  one-tenth  to  one-half  the  oil.  In 
certain  cases  the  landowner  also  receives  a  bonus  for  the 
lease,  amounting  to  from  $5,000  to  $10,000. 

The  lessee  binds  himself  to  begin  operations  within  sixty 
days.  The  lease  is  forfeited  if  the  lessee  fails  to  prosecute  the 
work,  either  to  success  or  abandonment,  within  a  reasonable 
time  after  beginning. 


26  VALUE  OF  OIL  LANDS.. 

Some  landowners  prefer  to  receive  a  certain  sum  for  the 
lease,  paid  upon  its  delivery. 

The  value  of  petroleum  lands  upon  which  indications  of 
petroleum  have  been  found,  is  from  $200  to  $1,000  per 
acre  in  "Western  Virginia. 

In  Yenango  County,  Pennsylvania,  the  heart  of  the  oil 
region,  the  lands  upon  the  creeks  are  worth  $1,000  per  acre. 
In  other  places  not  yet  well  known  as  good  oil  localities,  the 
price  per  acre 'is  from  $100  to  $300. 

The  prices  here  mentioned  are  those  ordinarily  quoted. 
There  are  instances  where  an  acre  of  ground  in  the  oil 
region  has  sold  for  a  far  greater  amount  than  any  sum  named. 

Previous  to  the  discovery  of  petroleum,,  and  of  its  value, 
these  lands  were  worth  in  general  about  $20  per  acre,  and 
in  some  places  much  less. 

A  visit  to  the  oil  region  is  full  of  interest  to  most  per 
sons.  There  is  a  novelty  in  the  operations  of  the  oil  well 
sinker,  and  in  the  various  phenomena  which  attend  his 
work,  which  is  attractive.  A  ride  down  Oil  Creek,  from 
Titusville  to  Oil  City,  though  usually  over  a  very  bad 
road,  repays  in  the  information  gained.  The  derricks  which 
in  some  places  on  the  flats  are  almost  as  numerous  as  the 
trees  originally  were,  give  a  peculiar  appearance  to  the 
landscape.  Evidences  of  great  industry  and  enterprise  are 
seen  in  the  steam  engines,  vats  (some  of  them  of  great 
capacity),  barrels,  boats  loaded  with  oil  floating  down  the 
creek,  and  many  other  things  which  serve  to  make  up  life 
in  the  oil  region. 

The  usual  mode  of  transportation  of  the  oil  is  in  barrels 
of  40  gallons  each.  Eecently  it  has  been  suggested,  that 
the  oil  could  be  forced  through  iron  pipes  from  such  parts 
as  were  at  great  distance  from  the  railway,  and  a  company 
has  been  formed  to  carry  out  the  enterprise. 


OIL  WELL  TOOLS. 


27 


SINKING  PETROLEUM  WELLS. 

The  site  of  the  proposed  well  being  selected,  a  frame  of 
timber  called  a  "  derrick,"  forty  feet  in 
height,  formed  of  four  posts  inclining  to 
wards  each  other  at  the  top,  set  upon  a  frame 
of  logs  eight  or  ten  feet  square  or  sunk 
into  the  ground,  is  erected  over  it  These 
derricks  are  prominent  objects  in  the  land 
scape  of  the  oil  region.  (See  Frontispiece 
and  vignette.)  At  the  top  of  the  derrick  is 
a  pulley  over  wliich  a  rope  is  passed  when 
the  boring  tools  or  tubing  are  to  be  hauled 
up.  A  steam-engine,  usually  of  six  or  ten 
horse  power,  is  placed  near  the  derrick,  and 
its  power  is  applied  by  means  of  a  belt 
from  the  fly-wheel  of  the  engine  to  a  large 
wheel  and  crank,  the  crank  giving  motion  to 
a  walking-beam,  at  the  end  of  wliich  boring 
tools  or  pump  rods  are  attached  as  may  be 
required.  The  lower  part  of  the  derrick  is 
sometimes  closed  in  with  boards.  The 
driving  of  the  soil-pipe,  Fig.  1,  is  the  first 
thing  done.  This  pipe  is  four  inches  in  dia 
meter,  made  in  ten  feet  lengths,  fitted  at  the 
ends,  and  driven  by  means  of  a  heavy  block 
of  wood,  as  in  pile  driving.  The  lengths 
follow  each  other  in  succession  until  the  rock 
bed  is  reached.  This  is  sometimes  thirty 
feet  below  the  surface,  and  the  soil  pipe  has 
to  penetrate  earth,  sand,  and  loose  slate,  &c. 
The  drilling  tools  are  attached  to  each  other 


FIG.  1. 


28  OIL  WELL  TOOLS. 

by  means  of  a  screw  connection  in  the  following  order :  Bit, 
Fig.  2,  or  Keamer  Fig.  3  ;  Auger  Stem  Fig.  4  ;  Jars  Fig.  5  ; 
Sinker  Bar,  similar  to  Auger  Stem,  though  not  so  long; 
Eope  socket  Fig.  6,  to  which  the  rope  is  attached  at  one  end 
and  at  the  other  to  the  Temper  Screw,  Fig.  9.  The  annexed 
diagram  gives  the  position  of  the  engine,  walking  beam,  and 
connection,  as  they  are  commonly  arranged,  together  with 
the  relative  positions  of  the  boring  tools  when  in  use.  The 
Temper  Screw  is  attached  to  a  rope  which  connects  with 
the  end  of  the  walking-beam,  and  serves  to  regulate  the 
descent  of  the  drill,  without  tfce  inconvenience  of  lengthen 
ing  the  rope  at  short  intervals.  The  Sinker  Bar  gives 
weight  to  the  upper  part  of  the  Jars,  which  slide  together, 
and  the  Auger  Stem  and  Bit  afford  weight  to  do  the  drill 
ing.  The  downward  stroke  of  the  walking-beam  releases 
the  Auger  Stem  and  Bit  for  an  instant  as  the  Jars  slide 
together,  and  they  fall  the  distance  necessary  to  penetrate 
the  rock,  and  are  again  lifted  by  the  Jars  on  the  upward 
stroke,  falling  again  as  the  stroke  descends. 

The  soil-pipe  is  cleared  of  its  contents  by  the  tools  and 
Sand  Pump,  Fig.  7,  which  is  a  hollow  tube  with  a  valve  at 
its  lower  ejid.  This  permits  it  to  fill  with  the  finely  pul 
verized  cletritus  made  by  the  drill,  and  it  is  alternately 
lowered  into  and  raised  from  the  well  and  emptied  until 
the  well  is  clear  for  the  tools  again.  When  the  soil-pipe  is 
clear,  drilling  the  rock  is  begun  in  the  way  described.  The 
weight  of  an  ordinary  set  of  tools  is  900  to  1000  Ibs.  A 
circular  motion  is  given  to  them  by  means  of  a  stout 
lever  passed  through  the  rope  near  the  Temper  Screw  at 
the  top  of  the  well,  and  moved  around  gradually  by  one 
of  the  workmen.  The  Keamer  is  used  to  enlarge  the  hole 
made  by  the  Bit. 

Occasionally  in  drilling,  the  tools  will  enter  a  crevice  in 


OIL'  WELL  TOOLS. 


29 


IIG.  2. 


I  I1 
L  i 


FIG.  8.          FIG.  4.  FIG.  5.  FIG.  6.  FIG.  7. 


OIL  WELL  TOOLS. 


FIE.  12. 


FIG.  a 


FIG.  9.  FIG.  10.  FIG.  11.  FIG.  13. 


OIL   WELL  TOOLS  AND  MACHINERY. 


31 


Machinery  used  in  Boring  Petroleum  Wells. 

the  rock  and  become  wedged  so  tightly 
that  they  are  often  lost  for  want  of  means 
to  extricate  them.  Numerous  appli 
ances  have  been  invented  to  extricate 
tools  that  have  become  fast.  The  Lazy 
Tongs,  Fig.  8,  is  one  of  these.  It  is  at 
tached  by  a  screw-joint  to  the  sinker 
bar  or  other  suitable  rod  of  iron,  and 
lowered  so  as  to  catch  the  end  of  the 
missing  tool  in  its  jaws.  It  is  said  by 
the  workmen  that  to  sink  one  or  two 
hundred  feet  is  comparatively  easy,  but 
that  at  four  hundred  feet  the  risk  of  loss 
of  tools  is  much  increased.  At  that 
depth  the  jar  of  the  falling  bit  and  auger 
stem  is  not  nearly  so  perceptible  at  the 
top  of  the  well,  the  elastic  rope  taking 
it  up. 

The  well  having  been  sunk  to  the 
oil,  which  does  not  always  manifest 
itself  by  flowing,  it  is  tubed  with 
two-inch  wrought  iron  pipe,  Fig.  12, 


32  OIL  PUMP,   SEED  BAG,    ETC. 

fastened  together  by  screw-joints,  in 'ten  or  twelve  feet 
lengths. 

The  first  length  sent  down  is  the  brass  or  iron  cylinder 
which  constitutes  with  its  valves  the  Oil  Pump,  Fig.  11. 
This  is  the  same  size  as  the  well  tube,  and  has  at  the  bot 
tom  a  ball  valve  which  is  fitted  into  a  brass  plug  having  a 
screw  top.  The  pump-rods,  which  are  tough  wooden  rods 
fitted  together  by  iron  sleeves  and  screws,  connect  at  the 
lower  end  with  the  upper  valve  of  the  oil  pump,  which  has 
a  screw  socket  at  its  lower  end  so  that  it  can  be  lowered 
down  to  the  bottom  valve,  screwed  over  its  top,  and  pull  it 
•up  when  necessary.  The  dotted  lines  in  the  oil  pump, 
Fig.  11,  show  the  position  of  the  valves,  when  the  up  stroke 
is  at  its  highest  pitch.  When  the  oil  pump  is  adjusted,  the 
required  lengths  of  tubing  are  connected  one  by  one,  and 
the  tube  is  lowered  to  its  place.  In  some  wells,  a  strainer 
of  wire  cloth  is  placed  around  the  lower  jpart  of  the  oil 
pump.  The  oil  pump  does  not  rest  upon  the  bottom  of 
the  well  so  as  to  close  its  lower  end.  The  pump-rods  work 
through  a  Stuffing  Box,  Fig.  13,  which  is  screwed  to  the 
top  of  the  well  tube.  From  its  upper  orifice,  the  oil  is  led 
by  other  tubes  into  vats,  which  are,  in  some  cases,  very 
large.  In  these  vats  the  oil  is  settled ;  the  water  being 
drawn  oif,  and  the  oil  barrelled  for  market. 

To  prevent  communication  between  any  particular  por 
tion  of  the  well  and  the  pumping  tube,  a  bag  of  linseed, 
called  a  "  seed  bag,"  is  sent  down  to  the  required  place.  This 
bag,  encircling  the  tube,  soon  swells  by  the  water  which  is 
always  present,  and  forms  a  water-tight  joint  in  the  well. 
For  instance,  when  it  is  desirable  to  prevent  the  water  beds 
of  one  of  the  upper  rocks  from  flooding  the  oil  beds  of  the 
lower  strata,  the  seed-bag  is  inserted  below  where  the 
water 'is  supposed  to  be,  and  prevents  it  from  reaching  the 


DIFFICULTIES  IN  BORING.  33 

oil  pump  at  the  bottom  of  the  well.  For  drawing  the  tube, 
a  Swivel,  Fig.  10,  is  used.  It  screws  into  the  tube. 

The  whole  process  of  sinking  petroleum  wells  is  similar 
to  that  of  the  artesian  wells.  The  peculiar  requirements  of 
the  oil  wells  have,  however,  made  their  sinking  a  work  of 
no  small  skill.  The  work  of  the  oil-well  borer  is  one 
requiring  great  patience  and  ingenuity.  He  works  beneath 
the  surface,  where  the  eye  cannot  perceive  the  causes  which, 
impede  the  work.  He  has  but  the  narrow  bore  of  the  well 
in  which  to  operate,  and  cannot  at  a  glance  take  in  the 
whole  state  of  the  rocks  through  which  he  penetrates.  His 
"indications"  of  petroleum  can  only  be  judged  of  by  his 
former  experience.  He  cannot  tell  to  a  certainty  that  he 
will  ''strike  oil,"  though  the  sand  pump  may  bring  up 
traces  of  it  from  time '  to  time.  Many  wells  afford  traces 
of  oil,  which  have  never  yet  reached  any  paying  quan 
tity. 

When  the  soil  is  not  deep,  a  circular  excavation  is  made 
down  to  the  rock  bed,  and  a  hollow  log,  or  "  gum,"  as  it  is 
called,  is  placed  in  it  on  one  end.  The  base  is  surrounded 
with  clay  to  prevent  the  influx  of  surface  water.  The 
seed  bag  is  also  used  to  keep  the  lower  part  of  the  well  free 
of  water.  The  cut  on  page  35  represents  one  of  these 
comparatively  shallow  wells  in  Western  Virginia.  It  is 
150  feet  in  depth,  and  was  pumping  five  barrels  per  day  at 
the  time  of  the  author's  visit  in  1863. 

When  steam-engines  are  not  to  be  had  conveniently,  a 
spring  pole  is  used  to  give  the  proper  motion  to  the  boring 
tools.  It  is  worked  by  two  men,  while  another  turns  the 
lever  at  the  top  of  the  rope  and  gives  a  circular  motion  to 
the  bit  below. 

There  are  instances  in  which,  when  the  oil-well  sinker  is 
so  fortunate  as  to  tap  a  reservoir  of  petroleum,  an  enormous 


34:  IMPROVED   MODES   OF  BORING  AND  PUMPING. 

flow  takes  place  for  a  time.  When  this  is  the  case  the  pump 
is  not  required.  Occasionally  water  is  met  with  which 
flows  in  great  quantity  for  a  time. 

Many  improvements  in  drilling  and  pumping  have  been 
suggested,  and  a  few  of  them  are  now  about  to  be  applied. 
An  air-pump  is  used  at  some  places  to  force  a  current  of 
air  through  a  tube  carried  to  the  bottom  of  the  well  tube, 
and  in  this  way  compel  the  oil  and  water  to  flow  out  with 
out  the  use  of  pumping  rods  and  valves.  The  improve 
ments  in  drilling  are  designed  to  remove  the  detritus  with 
out  the  inconvenience  and  loss  of  time  in  using  the  sand 
pump,  and  to  bore  the  well  with  an  auger  instead  of  a  trip 
hammer  motion.  There  will  be  some  difficulty  in  pulver 
izing  the  detritus  so  fine  as  to  float  it  away  on  a  current  of 
water,  which  one  invention  professes  to  do;  and  also  in 
working  a  long  tube  with  auger  action  without  torsion, 
which  is  the  intent  of  another  invention.  Under  favorable 
circumstances  the  wells  are  sunk  at  the  rate  of  six  and 
eight  feet  per  day.  There  are  drilling  machines  which 
can  bore  nine  feet  per  hour.  The  difficulty  will  be  to  apply 
them  to  deep  wells. 

A  drilling  apparatus  has  been  invented  which  has  the 
bit  shank  hollow.  The  bit  itself  has  three  cutting  edges 
formed  by  stout  pieces  of  steel,  set  so  as  to  radiate  from  a 
common  centre.  In  the  angle  formed  by.  these  pieces, 
which  are  three  inches  deep,  and  where  they  join  the  hol 
low  shank  or  stem,  there  are  brass  valves  which  permit  the 
detritus  to  enter  the  stem.  In  this  way  it  is  proposed  to 
combine  drill  and  sand-pump,  and  save  the  time  now  taken 
to  withdraw  the  tool  before  the  pump  is  inserted.  The 
above  drill  is,  with  its  auger  stem,  worked  by  a  wire  rope, 
which  is  passed  through  an  upright  shaft  at  the  top  of  the 
well.  This  shaft  is  furnished  with  set  screws  to  catch  the 


COST  OF   PETROLEUM  WELL, 


35 


Petroleum  Well,  Western  Virginia.     Depth,  150  feet. 

rope  and  regulate  its  feed.  An 
ingenious  arrangement  of  rollers, 
working  on  inclined  planes  with, 
abrupt  falls,  gives  motion-  to  *the 
drill.  The  rope  is  passed  around 
a  drum,  and  is  rapidly  hoisted  by 
means  of  an  attachment  to  the  ma 
chine.  The  drill  is  turned  in  the 
well  by  means  of  another  attach 
ment  which  turns  the  rope  half 
round,  back  and  forwards. 

The  cost  of  sinking  a  petroleum 
well  600  feet  is  estimated  at  $7,000, 
but  an  allowance  must  be  made  for 
contingencies,  loss  of  tools,  etc. 

Before  the  nature  of  petroleum 
and  its  inflammability  had  become 
known,  several  serious  accidents 


36  INFLAMMABILITY  OF  PETROLEUM. 

occurred  from  the  gas,  which  accompanies  the  oil  in  vast 
quantity  and  great  force,  taking  fire.  A  person  who  wit 
nessed  one  of  these  occurrences,  thus  described  it: 

"  We  had  gone  down  300  feet  and  were  expecting  to 
strike  oil  at  any  moment.  We  went  up  to  the  shanty 
where  we  boarded  to  supper,  and  on  our  way  back  to  the 
well,  which  was  just  below  in  the  hollow,  we  saw  the  men 
hurrahing,  and  presently  a  jet  of  gas,  water,  and  oil, 
rushed  up,  fairly  lifting  the  tools  out  of  the  well.  It  roared 
and  hissed  like  letting  off  steam  from  a  boiler.  The 
stream  seemed  to  me  to  mount  higher  than  the  derrick, 
which  was  forty  feet  high.  The  folks  in  the  neighborhood 
ran  down  with  their  shovels  and  dug  a  circular  trench 
around  the  well,  throwing  up  a  bank  to  catch  the  oil,  as 
we  had  not  expected  such  a  flood,  and  had  no  large  tanks 
ready.  The  gas  mingled  with  the  air,  and  for  a  distance 
about  the  well  the  air  was.  almost  yellow  with  gas  and  spray 

of  oil  from  the  fountain. 

i 

'  Mr.  E and  myself  looked  on  awhile  and  then  started 

to  go  to  the  engine-house  of  the  next  well  to  have  the  fires 
put  out.  Before  we  reached  it,  however,  the  gas  took  fire 

like  a  flash  of  lightning.     Mr.  E, ,  who  was  passing  a 

small  tank  of  oil,  was  covered  with  it  as  it  took  fire  also, 
and  I  lost  sight  of  him  for  a  moment.  My  hair  and  face 
were  burned,  but  I  was  not  much  hurt.  The  sight  of  the 
burning  well  was  terrible.  A  great  fountain  of  fire,  it 
wavered  to  and  fro  as  the  wind  took  it,  and  threw  off  blaz 
ing  jets  of  oil.  The  poor  people  who  were  dipping  the  oil 
up  in  the  little  pool  around  the  well,  wilted  down  like 
leaves  when  the  forest  is  on  fire.  Some  tried  to  crawl  away, 
but  the  liquid  flame  ran  along  the  ground  and  caught  them. 
Several  hundred  barrels  of  oil  from  a  neighboring  well 
caught  fire.  Vast  clouds  of  smoke  rose  from  the  burning 


VARIETIES   OF  PETROLEUM.  37 

well  and  floated  off  over  the  hills,  and  when  night  set  in 
the  clouds  and  hills  were  red  with  the  light  of  the  confla 
gration.  Mr.  E died  very  soon  after.  There  were  a 

great  many  lives  lost." 

Petroleum  should  always  be  handled  carefully.  Though 
it  will  not  explode  by  being  fired,  yet  the  consequences 
resulting  from  the  sudden  inflaming  of  a  large  quantity  of 
a  fluid  so  highly  combustible,  are  in  many  cases  more 
destructive  than  those  of  an  explosion  of  gunpowder. 

Recently,  in  Philadelphia,  a  large  quantity  of  petroleum, 
stored  in  a  street  near  some  dwelling-houses,  was  fired  at 
night.  The  store  yard  was  so  situated  that  the  oil  found 
an  easy  descent  by  the  street,  and  flowed  down  it  in  a  river 
of  flame,  running  into  the  cellars  and  setting  the  houses 
on  fire  with  the  rapidity  of  a  train  of  gunpowder. 

In  warm  weather  there  is  a  considerable  volatilization  of 
the  lighter  portions  of  petroleum.  These  will  fire  instantly 
from  a  match.  Barrels  which  have  contained  petroleum  or 
coal  oil  will  sometimes  become  filled  with  just  such  a  mix 
ture  of  gas  and  air  as  to  be  very  explosive.  A  negro,  at  a 
small  town  in  Georgia,  sitting  upon  an  empty  kerosene 
barrel,  lit  a  match  at  the  bung.  The  barrel  exploded, 
blowing  out  the  heads,  but  the  negro  was  fortunately  not 
much  hurt.  Accidents  from  the  gases  of  petroleum  and 
coal  oil  occur  also  in  stills  which  have  not  been  ventilated 
properly  before  being  approached  with  a  light. 

VARIETIES  AND   PRODUCTS  OF  PETROLEUM. 

The  oil  wells  of  Pennsylvania  yield  generally  greenish 
oils  of  rather  unpleasant  odors.  Their  specific  gravity 
ranges  from  '820  to  '782,  or  from  proof  40°  to  proof  48° 
Baum6.  The  oil  by  distillation  yields  from  75  to  85  per 


38  VARIETIES  OF  PETROLEUM. 

cent,  of  a  lamp  oil  which  should  not  vaporize  and  inflame 
under  a  temperature  of  from  110°  to  116°  Fah.  The 
refined  oil  is  usually  sold  subject  to  the  above  test. 

The  heavy  oils,  or  residuum,  left  in  the  still  are  sub 
jected  to  the  paraffin  treatment,  •  and  sold  as  lubrica 
tors.  In  some  cases  the  paraffin  is  not  separated,  but  the 
whole  residuum  is  mixed  with  various  matters  and  sold  as 
cart  grease.  The  naptha,  or  benzole,  as  it  is  improperly 
called,  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  spirits  of  turpentine,  or  is 
mixed  with  turpentine  for  painting  purposes.  The  naptha 
is  obtained  in  varying  proportions  from  the  petroleum,  but 
is  usually  10  to  20  per  cent,  of  the  crude  oil. 

A  very  heavy  lubricating  oil  is  obtained  from  several 
wells  in  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania,  of  specific  gravities  '880 
to  -860,  or  from  proof  28°  to  32°  Baume.  Some  of  these 
heavy  oils  will  remain  fluid  at  very  low  temperature.  The 
"Mecca  oil"  is  of  this  class.  Its  specific  gravity  is  from 
•890  to  -910,  or  from  proofs  23°  to  26°  Baume. 

An  oil  is  obtained  from  the  wells  of  the.Tarentum  Oil, 
Salt,  and  Coal  Co.,  of  the  specific  gravity  of  '795,  or  proof 
45°  Baume.  It  is  of  a  dark  amber  color,  and  will  burn  for 
a  time  in  lamps  without  being  previously  refined.  It  yields 
5  per  cent,  of  naptha  by  distillation,  and  90  per  cent,  of 
lamp  oil.  It  is  used  by  woollen  manufacturers  in  place  of 
lard  oil. 

A  very  heavy  oil  is  obtained  near  Crestline,  Ohio.  It 
resembles  the  Mecca  oil,  and  is  an  excellent  lubricator.  The 
wells  ut  Franklin,  Pennsylvania,  produce  heavy  oils.  An 
oil,  which  is  quite  equal  in  color  to  the  best  refined  paraffin 
oil,  is  found  on  Duck  Creek,  Ohio. 

The  Canada  petroleum  is  of  specific  gravity  from  *880  to 
•860,  or  from  proof  28°  to  32°  Baume.  It  is  a  dark 
colored  and  offensive  oil.  Its  odor  can  be  removed  as 


PETROLEUM   OF  CALIFORNIA.  39 

shown  in  another  place.  It  yields  more, lamp  oil  than  the 
Pennsylvania,  as  it  will  burn  in  a  lamp  at  proof  36°  Baume, 
or  specific  gravity  '838. 

The  California  petroleum  varies  in  density.  Mr.  J.  H. 
White,  of  San  Francisco,  gives  the  yield  of  the  petroleum 
tested  by  him  as  below,  the  crude  oil  being  at  20°  Baume, 
or  specific  gravity  '927  : 

38  per  cent.  Illuminating  oil,    .         .         .     41°  Baumd. 
48       "          Lubricating  oil,      .         .        .     21°       " 
10  Pitch,  • 

4  Water. 

100 

• 

Mr.  Gilbert,  who  has  had  some  experience  in  California 
petroleum,  states  that  the  crude  oil  loses  10  to  15  per  cent. 
of  its  volume  in  the  process  of  rectification,  and  classifies 
the  products  as  follows  : 

Light  oil  (Naphtha)       .  .      5  per  cent,  at  65° 

Burning  oil     "      .         .  .50         "  30°  to  32° 

Light  machine  oil,         .  .20         "  25° 

Heavy  oil  and  paraffin,  .     25         "  18° 

The  above  is  taken  from  Prof.  Silliman's  report  on  the 
California  Petroleum  region.  The  proofs  mentioned  are, 
no  doubt,  those  of  Baume's  hydrometer.  The  density  of 
the  illuminating  oil  seems  to  be  stated  rather  low.  but  it 
may  be  that  the  lamp  oil  from  California  petroleum  can  be 
burned  at  a  lower  proof  than  even  that  of  Canada,  which 
burns  at  36°  Baume. 

There  has  been  some  difference  of  opinion  regarding  the 
yield  of  California  petroleum  in  lamp  oil.  Both  of  the 
oils  examined  by  Mr.  White  and  Mr.  Gilbert,  are  certainly 
*  4 


40  PETKOLEUM   OF   CANADA. 

valuable.  In  a  region  where  petroleum  can  be  had  in  a 
variety  of  conditions,  samples  can  be  tested  which  would 
bear  no  comparison  in  product  to  each  other. 

Hardened  petroleum  from  Enniskillen,  Canada  West, 
was  tested  by  the  author  and  found  to  yield  50  per  cent. 
of  products  by  distillation.  A  sample  not  quite  so  indu 
rated  gave  65  per  cent. 

Messrs.  Parsons  and  Conway  report  that  crude  oil  from 
the  Buenaveriture  district,  California,  produces  50  per  cent, 
of  lamp  gil,  and  28  per  cent.  o£  lubricating  oil. 


CANADA  PETKOLEUM.  * 

The  petroleum  wells  of  Canada  are  situated  principally 
in  the  county  of  Lambton,  Canada  West.  The  oil  springs 
of  Enniskillen,  and  of  the  banks  of  the  Thames,  were  long 
ago  known  to  the  Indians  and  early  settlers.  On  Black 
Creek,  petroleum  springs  had  in  course  of  time  covered 
an  area  of  two  acres  with  semi-solid  bitumen,  the  result  of 
its  loss  of  the  lighter  portions  by  evaporation. 

At  Enniskillen  the  rock  bed  is  covered  with  from  forty 
to  sixty  feet  of  clay  and  a  thin  bed  of  gravel. 

The  "  surface  wells,"  so  called,  are  sunk  through  the  clay 
to  the  rock,  in  the  same  way  that  an  ordinary  shaft  is  sent 
down,  care  being  taken  to  curb  the  shaft  with  plank  or  tim 
ber,  to  prevent  the  caving  in  of  the  soft  and  water-laden 
sides.  Upon  reaching  the  gravel  bed,  the  petroleum  is 
generally  met  with  in  considerable  quantity,  though  it  fre 
quently  appears  in  the  shaft  as  it  descends.  The  clay 
seems  to  be  filled  with  veins  of  water  and  petroleum,  and 
from  these  the  surface  wells  are  supplied.  The  "rock 
wells,"  as  they  are  termed,  are  those  deeper  borings  which 


PETROLEUM  OF  TRINIDAD.  41 

resemble  those  of  Pennsylvania.  They  are  sometimes  sunk 
when  the  surface  well  becomes  exhausted,  by  continuing 
the  wells  by  the  drills,  or  are  commenced,  as  in  Pennsylva 
nia,  by  driving  to  the  rock-bed. 

At  a  distance  of  two  hundred  feet  from  the  surface  the 
petroleum  is  found  ;  sometimes  in  great  abundance.  Usually 
petroleum  and  water  are  produced  by  the  well,  but  recent 
wells  have  been  found  to  send  up  petroleum  only. 

The  townships  of  Mosa  and  Oxford,  on  the  Thames,  and 
a  locality  on  the  Big  Otter  Creek,  in  Dereham,  near  Tilson- 
burg,  have  been  found  to  contain  the  oil  Wells  have  been 
sunk  at  Gaspe,  Canada  East,  near  Douglastown,  where 
petroleum  springs  are  found.  So  far,  they  have  not  been 
found  to  yield  very  largely.  Indications  of  petroleum, 
however,  exist  over  a  large  portion  of  Gaspe,  and  it  is  very 
probable  that  a  large  supply  may  yet  be  had  from  this 
quarter. 

PETROLEUM   OF  TRINIDAD. 

The  celebrated  Pitch  Lake  of  the  Island  of  Trinidad  is 
upwards  of  three  miles  in  circumference,  and  forms  the  head 
of  La  Brae  harbor.  At  the  time  of  the  author's  visit  to  the 
place,  the  bitumen,  of  the  consistency  of  thin  mortar,  was 
flowing  out  from  the  side  of  a  hill,  and  making  its  way  out 
wards  over  more  compact  layers  towards  the  sea.  As  the 
semi-solid  and  sulphureous  mineral  advances,  and  is  ex 
posed  to  the  atmosphere,  it  becomes  more  solid ;  but  ever 
continues  to  advance  and  encroach  upon  the  water  of  the 
harbor.  The  surface  of  the  bitumen  is  occupied  by  small 
ponds  of  water — clear  and  transparent,  in  which  there  are 
several  kinds  of  beautiful  fishes.  The  sea,  near  the  shore, 
sends  up  considerable  quantities  of  naphtha  from  submarine 


42  PETROLEUM  OF  CUBA,   ETC. 

springs,  and  the  water  is  often  covered  with  oil,  which 
reflects  the  colors  of  the  rainbow.  In  the  cliffs,  along  the 
shores,  there  are  strata  of  lignite,  in  which  it  has  been  sup 
posed  by  some  the  bitumen  and  naphtha  had  their  origin. 

I 

PETKOLEUM   OF  CUBA,    WEST  INDIA  ISLANDS,    AND  SOUTH 
AMEKICA. 

In  Venezuela,  at  the  Punta  d'Araya,  at  Cape  Cirial,  and 
near  Cape  de  la  Brea,  Yon  Humboldt  observed  "  streams  of 
naphtha  issuing  from  mica  slate,  and  covering  the  sea  for 
some  distance."*  At  the  Lake,  and  near  the  city  of  Mara- 
caybo,  numerous  streams  of  petroleum  are  found,  together 
with  compact  bitumen. 

Petroleum  springs  have  also  been  discovered  in  Brazil. 
Most  of  the  West  India  Islands  contain  petroleum  and 
bitumen. 

K.  C.  Taylor,  in  his  "  Statistics  of  Coal,"  1855,  states 
that  from  the  serpentine  rock  at  Guanabacoa,  near  Havana, 
petroleum  springs  are  observed  issuing.'  There  are  all  the 
varieties  of  bitumen  to  be  found  here,  from  the  thin  oil  to 
the  compact  pitch.  It  is  a  matter  of  history,  that  Havana 
was  originally  named  "Carine"  by  the  early  visitors  and 
settlers;  "for  there  we  careened  our  ships,  and  pitched 
them  with  the  natural  tar  which  we  found  lying  in  abun 
dance  upon  the  shores  of  this  beautiful  bay."f 

"  There  are  also  springs  of  petroleum  between  Holguin 
and  Mayari,  in  the  eastern  part  of  Cuba,  and  also  in  the  di 
rection  of  Santiago  de  Cuba."  $  There  is  a  petroleum  spring 


*  Travels  and  Researches  of  Alexander  Yon  Humboldt,  1799. 

f  Early  History  of  Cuba. 

J  Essai  Politique  sur  1'Isle  de  Cuba. 


PETROLEUM  OF   BURMAH.  43 

in  St.  Andrew's  parish,  Barbadoes.  The  product  of  this 
spring  has  been  sold  under  the  name  of  "  green  tar,"  and 
"  Barbadoes  tar." 


PETROLEUM  OF  BURMAH,   JAVA,    ETC. 

The  celebrated  Kangoon  wells  at  Yananhoung,  on  the 
Irawaddy,  produce  yearly  a  large  supply  of  petroleum, 
which  is  regularly  imported  into  England.  It  contains 
from  ten  to  eleven  per  cent,  of  paraffin. 

Mineral  oils  are  also  found  in  many  islands  of  the  Indian 
Archipelago.  Java  and  Sumatra  produce  them.  An 
almost  colorless  oil  rises  from  the  earth  at  Baku,  on  the 
borders  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  It  can  be  burned  in  lamps  in 
its  natural  state.  Petroleum  is  found  at  Schnde,  near  Hil- 
desheim,  in  Hanover,  and  in  Gallicia  ;  at  Amiano,  in  Italy ; 
in  Bavaria,  Sicily,  Switzerland,  France,  and  in  other  parts 
of  Europe. 

It  would  seem  from  the  numerous  places  on  the  globe 
where  petroleum  exists,  that  it  must  for  a  long  time  do 
away  with  the  necessity  for  coal  distillation.  But  though 
petroleum  has  been  discovered  at  the  places  mentioned,  it 
has  been  produced  as  an  article  of  commerce  at  but  a  very 
few  of  them,  and  it  is  not  probable  that  from  many  of  them 
any  large  supply  will  ever  be  obtained.  There  will  always 
be  places  where  coal  and  coal  shales  will  be  the  most  pro 
fitable  to  the  manufacturer.  In  Great  Britain,  for  instance, 
the  distillation  of  shales  is  steadily  increasing,  though  its 
commerce  with  the  United  States  is  very  large,  and  the 
shipments  of  petroleum  from  the  latter  country  are  exten 
sive. 


VARIETIES  OF  COAL. 


CHAPTER  III. 

Coal — Bituminous  Clays  and  Shales— Bitumen — Table  of  Volatile  Matter, 

Coke  and  Crude  Oil  from  Coals,  etc. 
I 

THE  varieties  of  coal  have  heretofore  been  classed  under 
the  heads  of 

Anthracite,  or  Hard  Coalr 
Caking  Coal, 
Cherry  Coal, 
Splint  Coal,  and 
Cannel  Coal. 

These  five  varieties  have  the  following  composition : — 
EICHARDSON.  THOMPSON. 


Antliracite. 

Caking  Coal. 

Cfceny  Coal. 

Splint  Coal. 

Cannel  Coal. 

Carbon           92'56 

87-952 

83-025 

82-924 

76-25 

Hydrogen        3*33 

5-23-9 

5-250 

5-491 

5-50 

Nitrogen             " 

u 

it 

u 

1-61 

Oxygen           2*53 

3-806 

8-566 

8-847 

13-83 

Ashes               1-58 

1-393 

1-549 

1-128 

2-81 

Other  varieties  of  combustibles  have  been  arranged  by 
Berthier  in  the  following  manner :— 


COMPOSITION"   OF   COALS. 


Composition  in 
100  parts. 

Peat  or 
Turf. 

LifrnUc,  or 
Brown  Coal. 

Bituminous 

Coal. 

Anthracite, 
Pennsylvania. 

Plumbago,  or 
Graphite. 

Carbon 

38 

54 

73 

94 

95 

Hydrogen 

ll 

05 

05 

2-55 

u 

Oxygen 

ft 

26 

20 

2-56 

u 

Ashes 

17.4 

14 

02 

u 

ll 

Volatile  ) 
Matter    f 

28 

tt 

u 

ii 

ll 

m 

Iron 

H 

a 

it 

ii 

5 

The  names  given  to  combustible  substances  have  been 
applied  with  reference  only  to  their  common  characters  and 
uses.  Frequently  coals  bear  the  names  of  the  places  where 
they  are  mined.  Few  of  their  appellations  have  any 
reference  whatever  to  their  chemical  composition,  and 
therefore  in  seeking  for  oil  coals  (if  the  term  may  be  used) 
the  manufacturer  must  be  directed  by  an  actual  test  of  the 
material  itself. 

In  the  same  coal  field,  the  same  series  of  strata,  and  in 
the  same  stratum,  there  are  important  differences  of  compo 
sition.  It  is  as  providential  as  wonderful  that  the  carbo 
naceous  material  of  the  same  deposit  is  adapted  to  different 
uses. 

The  varieties  of  coal  may  have  been  produced  from  the 
different  kinds  of  plants  from  which  the  coal  has  been 
derived,  and  the  peculiar  conditions  of  the  districts  where 
those  plants  flourished  before  their  downfall  and  inhuma 
tion,  or  submersion.  The  changes  that  have  taken  place 
in  the  original  plants  during  their  passage  from  woody 
fibre  into  coal,  are  ascribed  to  the  evolution  of  a  part  of 


4:6  COMPOSITION   OF   COALS. 

t  ' 

their  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  as  there  is  less  of  those 
elements  in  the  coal  than  in  wood.  This  will  be  observed 
by  viewing  the  following  table : — 

Oxygen 
Carbon.      Hydrogen.  and 

Composition  of  the  Anthracites  of  the  Nitrogen. 

Transition  Rocks      .  90-  2'50          3'69 

"  "        Bituminous  Coal  of  the 

Secondary  Rocks      .  86-  4'86          7'11 

"        Lignites  of  the  Tertiary 

Rocks    .        .        .  6036        5-00     .  2562 

Wood  (recent)      .        .  |      .        .        .  49-60       580        42-56 


It  will  also  be  observed  that  the  older  the  formation 
the  greater  the  amount  of  carbon  contained  in  its  coal,  the 
amount  of  hydrogen  being  diminished.  This  fact  may  be 
ascribed,  chiefly,  or  in  part,  to  the  greater  degree  of  heat 
and  pressure  to  which  the  lower  and  older  coal  strata  have 
been,  and  still  are  subjected. 

The  gases  of  deep  coal  mines  are  very  similar  to  those 
of  gas  manufactories,  and  such  as  are  produced  by  a  high 
temperature.  The  deeper  the  mine  the  greater  is  the  dis 
charge  of  carburetted  hydrogen.  It  is  to  the  internal  heat 
of  the  earth,  and  other  chemical  agencies  combined  with 
causes  of  less  force,  that  we  must  chiefly  ascribe  the  trans 
mutation  of  wood  into  coal.  The  similarity  of  the  distilled 
products  of  wood  and  coals,  and  of  charcoal  and  coke,  should 
not  be  overlooked  in  seeking  for  proofs  of  the  vegetable 
origin  of  coal.  In  mines  of  lignite  and  cannel  coal  car 
bonic  acid  or  choke  damp  is  almost  the  ,only  gas  present. 
In  lower  coal  mines,  or  those  that  have  been  longer  under 
the  influence  of  heating  and  other  chemical  agents,  carbu 
retted  hydrogen,  or  fire  damp,  predominates. 

Liebig  has  shown  the  great  loss  of  oxygen  and  increase 


BOGHEAD    COAL.  47 

of  hydrogen  and  carbon  in  lignite  and  brown  coal,  during 
their  transition  from  a  vegetable  to  a  fossil  state ;  still  there 
is  much  that  remains  unexplained  regarding  other  kinds  of 
coal. 


BOGHEAD   COAL,    OR  BITUMINOUS  CLAY. 

This  peculiar  mineral  occurs  at  Torbane  Hill,  in  the  car 
boniferous  limestone  of  the  Frith  of  Forth,  Scotland.  It  is 
the  material  from  which  Mr.  Young  obtains  paraffin  oil 
and  paraffin,  and  his  manufactory  is  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  the  mines.  It  has  been  extensively  shipped  to 
the  United  States,  and  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
kerosene  at  New  York  and  Boston.  During  the  year  1859 
the  North  American  Kerosene  Gas  Light  Company  im 
ported  upwards  of  20,000  tons  of  this  material  for  the  sup 
ply  of  their  works  at  Newtown  Creek,  Long  Island,  and  at 
an  average  cost  of  eighteen  dollars  per  ton.  In  consequence 
of  the  discovery  of  numerous  strata  of  cannel  coals  in  the 
"Western  States  of  this  country,  and  of  cheaper  substances 
for  the  production  of  oils,  the  importation  of  the  Torbane 
Hill  mineral  will  doubtless  be  discontinued. 

Although  this  mineral  possesses  few  of  the  characteris 
tics  of  a  true  coal,  the  term  coal  has  been  applied  to  it  for 
commercial  convenience.  It  has  been  the  source  of  long- 
continued  and  expensive  lawsuits.  The  point  in  dispute 
affected  the  ownership,  whether  it  was  coal,  or  not  coali 
Numbers  of  the  most  scientific  men  in  Europe  were 
arraigned  before  courts  and  juries  to  decide  whether  the 
so-called  Boghead  coal  is  coal,  or  bituminous  clay.  There 
was  a  decided  preponderance  against  the  term  "coal"  and 
in  favor  of  "bituminous  clay."  Finally  the  contending 
parties  compromised,  and  the  term  coal  was  permitted  to 


48  ALBERT   COAL. 

be  applied,  althougli  the  bitumen  of  the  Great  Pitch  Lake 
of  Trinidad  has  an  equal  right  to  that  appellation.* 

Boghead  coal  is  among  the  most  valuable  minerals  for 
the  manufacture  of  oils.  It  has  an  uneven  fracture,  is  of  an 
earthy  color,  and  burns  with  a  long  smoky  flame.  It  yields 
13,000  cubic  feet  of  gas,  of  specific  gravity  0*775  per  ton. 
As  it  contains  only  traces  of  nitrogen,  the  quantity  of  am 
monia  given  oft*  is  small.  The  following  is  the  medium 
result  of  four  trials  in  testing  its  qualities  : — 

I  Volatile  matter  .  .  »  .  7010 
Carbon  in  coke  .  .  ;  .  1030 
Ash  .  '  .  .  .  l'.  .  19-60 

100-00 

The  ton  of  coal  run  in  common  retorts  gives  120  gallons 
of  crude  oil,  of  which  65  gallons  may  be  made  into  lamp 
oil,  7  gallons  of  paraffin  oil,  and  12  Ibs.  of  pure  paraffin. 
The  coke  is  worthless,  and  the  ash  consists  chiefly  of  silica 
and  alumina.  At  a  price  of  11  dollars  per  ton  for  the  coals, 
the  cost  of  the  oil  is  estimated  at  63  cents  per  gallon.f 


ALBERT   COAL. 

This  bituminous  mineral  occurs  at  Hillsboro',  Albert 
County,  in  the  province  of  New  Brunswick,  and  within 
four  miles  of  the  Peticodiac  Kiver.  It  is  an  injected  vein, 
situated  almost  vertically  in  the  earth,  and  from  one  to  six 
teen  feet  in  thickness.  It  is  associated  with  rocks  highly 
charged  with  bitumen,  and  has  neither  roof,  floor,  under- 

*  London  Journal  of  Gas  Lighting,  iii.  521.     Young  vs.  "White,  and  others. 
f  Report  of  the  Committee  North  American  Kerosene  Gas  Light  Company. 
New  York.     1860. 


ALBERT  COAL.  49 

clay,  nor  stratum  of  stigmaria,  nor  other  accompaniments 
which  distinguish  coal  deposits  from  all  others.* 

The  Albert  coal,  so  called,  is  extremely  brilliant,  breaks 
with  a  conchoidal  fracture,  does  not  soil  the  fingers,  and  is 
strongly  electric.  It  melts,  and  drops  in  the  flame  of  a 
candle,  and  dissolves  in  naphtha  and  other  solvents,  form 
ing  a  varnish.  It  has  all  the  essential  properties  of  asphal- 
tum,  while  it  is  void  of  those  which  constitute  true  coal. 
Like  the  mineral  of  Torbane  Hill,  it  has  been  the  subject 
of  disputes  and  lawsuits,  the  total  cost  of  which  has 
exceeded  thirty  thousand  dollars.  If  the  substance  were 
coal,  the  coal  was  the  property  of  one  party ;  if  asphal- 
tum,  the  asphaltum  belonged  to  another.  Coal  had  been 
reserved  by  the  Crown  of  Great  Britain ;  but  asphaltum 
was  not  mentioned  in  the  grants  of  the  land.  In  April, 
1852,  an  intelligent  jury,  who  analysed  the  mineral  at  Hali 
fax,  decided  that  it  was  asphaltum,  and  not  coal.  Another 
trial  was  held  in  the  county  where  the  so-called  Albert  coal 
is  mined  in  July  of  the  same  year.  It  lasted  eleven  days. 
Chemists  were  summoned  from  every  quarter,  and  under 
the  most  conflicting  testimony,  and  with  a  jury  of  farmers, 
the  advocates  for  coal  obtained  a  verdict,  and  the  asphaltum 
has  since  been  called  Albert  coal.  The  composition  of  the 
Albert  coal  is  as  follows : — 

Carbon  .  .  .  .  86-207 

Hydrogen  .  .  .  8'962 

Nitrogen  .  .  -••'-,  2'930 

Sulphur  .  .  traces 

Oxygen  .  ,  1-971 

Ash  0-100 


100-000  100-000. 

C.  M.  WETIIERELL.        GESNER. 


*  See  Taylor  on  Coal,  2d  edition,  p.  516. 


50  BRECKENRIDGE   COAL. 

The  average  yield  of  crude  oils  by  four  trials  in  large 
retorts  was  110  gallons  per  ton,  and 

Volatile  matters     .      .  .        .        .        .  ^61'050 

Coke      .  '•     . '     -'.        ..,..'  .'  30-650 

Hygroscopic  moisture    .     .••'.'      ..  0'860 

Ash        .,       ,     •  ,.. .,     .  ,.,      -.  .  ,...  7-440 

100-000 

Of  the  crude  oil  70  per  cent,  may  be  made  into  lamp  oil, 
10  per  cent,  is  heavy  oil  and  paraffin.  The  coke  is  exceed 
ingly  brilliant  and  cellular ;  it  burns  rapidly,  and  gives  a 
strong  heat. 

BRECKENRIDGE  COAL. 

The  Alleghany,  or  Apalachian  coal  field  of  the  United 
States,  has  been  estimated  to  embrace  63,000  square  miles. 
Interstratified  with  the  common  bituminous  coals,  in  this 
vast  region  there  are  very  numerous  strata  of  cannel  coals, 
adapted  to  the  manufacture  of  oils.  In  the  numerous  sur 
veys  and  valuable  reports  made  on  the  coal  districts,  cannel 
coals  are  seldom  described  as  a  distinct  variety. 

A  peculiarity  of  the  great.  Western  coal  field  is,  that  the 
coal  does  not  appear  to  be  separated  into  basins,  or  lake- 
like  depressions  in  the  earth,  as  it  is  in  Europe,  and  in  the 
anthracite  coal  districts.  The  bituminous  coal  is  found  in 
the  tops  of  hills,  and  even  in  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  in 
beds  nearly  horizontal,  and  it  displays  the  same  peculiarity 
as  it  stretches  away  towards  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the 
Canadian  Lakes,  and  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

Among  the  cannels  that  have  been  discovered  Brecken- 
ridge  coal  holds  an  important  place.  This  coal  occurs  in 
Breckenridge  County,  Kentucky.  It  is  a  rich  variety  of 


CANDLE  TAR.  51 

eannel,  three  feet  in  thickness,  and  has  already  supplied  a 
large  amount  of  oil  and  paraffin.  The  lamp  oil,  when  pro 
perly  purified,  is  of  good  quality.  At  a  red  heat  this  coal 
yields — 

Volatile  matters 61 '300 

Fixed  carbon 3OOOO 

Ash 8055 

Hygroscopic  moisture    ....  '645 

Sulphur          ......  a  trace 


100-000 

By  the  ordinary  methods  of  working,  this  coal  yields  130 
gallons  of  crude  oil  per  ton,  of  which  58  per  cent,  was 
manufactured  into  lamp  oil,  and  12  gallons  into  paraffin 
oil  and  paraffin.  The  quality  of  the  coal  is  variable,  and 
the  products  are  very  much  influenced  by  the  degree  of 
heat  applied  to  the  retorts  in  the  distillation. 


CANDLE   TAR. 

The  tar  and  pitch  resulting  from  the  manufacture  of 
stearine  have  been  employed  for  the  production  of  oils. 
Large  supplies  have  been  imported  from  England  into  the 
United  States,  and  sold  under  the  narrfcs  of  "  grease"  and 
candle  tar.  The  ordinary  yield  of  crude  oil  from  this  mate 
rial  is  200  gallons  per  ton,  of  which  70  per  cent,  may  be 
made  into  lamp  oil,  and  10  per  cent,  into  lubricating  oil. 
The  oils  are  excellent  in  quality ;  but  heretofore  the  first 
distillation  of  the  tar  has  been  attended  with  inconvenience, 
as  it  "  foams  up"  in  the  retorts,  and  the  coke  adheres  very 
firmly  to  their  sides.  The  price  has  varied  from  25  to  40 
dollars  per  ton.. 

This  article  was  distilled  in  New  York  by  Henry  Gesner, 


52  POOLE   COAL. 

in  1857.  The  tar  foams  in  the  beginning  of  the  distilla 
tion,  and  is  very  troublesome.  The  foaming  arises  from 
water  intimately  combined  with  the  tar,  and  causes  the 
charge  to  "boil  over."  In  one  instance,  the  expansive 
force  was  so  great  as  to  lift  the  dome  of  the  still,  which 
was  let  into  a  groove  around  the  sides,  and  not  bolted,  but 
cemented.  The  consequence  was  that  the  charge  in  the 
still  spewed  out  and  took  fire,  and  the  factory  was  destroyed. 
There  is  a  small  portion  of  stearic  acid  distilled  over,  after 
the  water  has  been  removed.  The  distillate  runs  from  65° 
Baume  to  30°  Baume.  There  is  a  hard  coke  or  pitch  left 
in  the  still. 

The  residuum  of  palm  oil  and  lard  distillations  behaves 
in  much  the  same  way.     The  illuminating  oil  is  excellent. 

SOUTH  BOGHEAD   COAL. 

Near  Poole  (England)  there  occurs  a  peculiar  kind  of 
shale,  which  has  been  sold  as  "  South  Boghead  Coal."  It 
abounds  in  the  remains  of  fishes  and  Crustacea.  '  It  gives 
out  42  per  cent,  of  volatile  matter,  and  therefore  has 
offered  an  object  of  trial  to  oil-makers  ;  but  the  oils  made 
'  from  this  rock  contain  a  greater  number  of  the  equivalents 
of  carbon  than  those  derived  from  coals,  or  bitumens,  and 
with  the  ordinary  density  they  smoke  in  the  common  lamp. 
It  seems  quite  evident  that  the  elements  of  the  oil — carbon, 
hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen,  now  composing  the  shale, 
in  part,  have  been  derived  .from  fishes  and  other  marine 
animals,  and  not  from  the  vegetable  kingdom,  as  in  the 
case  of  coal. 


AUSTRALIAN  COALS.  53 


BROWN   COAL. 

Singular  beds  of  brown  coal  have  been  discovered  on 
the  Ouachita  Eiver,  Arkansas,  and  at  other  places  in  that 
quarter.  They  contain  the  remains  of  sphagneous  plants 
and  woody  fibre.  It  appears  that  peat  bogs  have  been 
overflown,  or  otherwise  saturated  with  petroleum,  and 
hardened  by  time  and  oxidation.  The  oils  distilled  from 
this  material  abound  in  paraffin.  It  has  the  following  com 
position  in  100  parts: — 

Volatile  matters  condensed  into  oils,  and  gas  uncondensed  GO'10 
Fixed  carbon  .  .,  .  >.  • .  -...-.  32'85 
Ash  .  .  .  .'.,..  .  .  .  .  7-05 

100-00 

Crude  oil  at  the  rate  of  68  gallons  per  ton  was  obtained 
from  it.  It  is  semi-solid  when  the  thermometer  is  at  80° 
Fah.,  and,  besides  lamp  and  lubricating  oils,  it  produces 
143  Ibs.  of  paraffin  per  ton. 

Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick  produce  a  variety  of 
shales,  which  at  one  time  could  be  profitably  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  oil.  The  "Pictou  shale"  of  Nova  Scotia, 
and  the  "  Asphalte  Kock"  of  Dorchester,  New  Brunswick, 
yield  from  twenty  to  thirty  gallons  refined  oil  to  the  ton. 

A  sample  of  cannel  coal  from  Hunter's  River,  Australia, 
gave  a  yield  of  sixty  gallons  crude,  and  forty  gallons  refined 
oil  to  the  ton.  Australia  evidently  abounds  in  bituminous 
substances.  Mr.  H.  H.  Hall,  of  Sidney,  N.  S.  W.,  handed 
the  author  several  fine  samples  of  cannel  coal  from  the  vici 
nity  of  Sidney,  together  with  a  small  specimen  of  shale, 
which,  in  appearance  and  burning  properties,  resembled  the 
Boghead  coal. 


54:  BITUMEN. 


BITUMEN  AND  BITUMINOUS  SANDS  AND   CLAYS. 

At  the  various  localities  mentioned  in  the  preceding 
chapter  as  petroleum  deposits,  bitumen  in  different  stages 
of  solidity  is  generally  found. 

The  bitumen  of  Trinidad  was  the  article  from  which  the 
author  first  obtained  "  Kerosene,"  which  differs  in  some 
degree  from  u  coal  oil."  The  bitumen  is  of  a  grey  color, 
somewhat  brittle,  but  still  yielding  to  the  heat  of  the  sun. 
A  cargo  of  broken  masses  will  consolidate  in  a  ship's  hold 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  require  mining  before  it  can  be  dis 
charged.  The  following  is  the  result  of  several  trials  made 
with  reference  to  its  application  for  the  manufacture  of  oils: 

Specific  gravity  .-  .  .  0.882 

Crude  oil           .  .'  .'  .'    ;  .     70  gallons  per  ton. 

Eefinedoil        .  '    .  /:.  '    ;      '  .     42         "        "      " 

Lubricating  oil  ..  .  ."  ;  ..     11         "        "     " 

This  bitumen  varies  in  quality,  owing  to  the  sand  and 
debris  over  which  it  flows.  Taken  from  the  lake  itself,  it 
would  probably  yield  twice  the  above  quantity  of  oil. 

A  vein  of  bitumen  has  been  discovered  near  Cairo,  thirty 
miles  east  of  Parkersburg,  West  Virginia.  It  is  repre 
sented  as  a  perpendicular  mass,  jutting  out  from  the  side  of 
a  hill  two  hundred  and  ninety  feet.  The  strata  of  the  hill 
are  nearly  horizontal,  and  they  are  cut  at  right  angles  by 
the  continuous  vein  of  the  bituminous  mineral,  which  is 
four  feet  eight  inches  in' thickness.  The  position  of  the 
vein  has  been  ascertained  by  the  proprietors,  who  have 
sunk  a  shaft  upon  the  line  of  the  outcrop.  A  sensible  de 
scription  represents  that  it  appears  the  hill  has  been  split,  a 


BITUMINOUS  CLAY.  55 

perpendicular  chasm  opened,  and  afterwards  filled  with 
asphaltum  in  a  liquid  state,  and  which  has  since  hardened 
into  a  compact  material.  Coal  never  occurs  in  this  manner; 
but  is  always  interstratified  with  its  associate  sandstones, 
shales,  and  fire  clays.  In  all  its  geological  relations  and 
character,  the  Cairo  deposit  is  like  the  asphaltum  of  Albert 
County,  New  Brunswick. 

Some  of  the  Cuba  bitumens  yield  one  hundred  and 
twenty  gallons  of  crude  oil  to  the  ton.  The  finest  varieties 
are  used  in  making  varnish.  On  the  borders  of  the  River 
Atarahy,  forty  miles  south  of  Bahia,  there  are  extensive 
beds  of  lime  and  clay  saturated  with  bitumen,  and  capable 
of  yielding  oil  in  large  quantities.  The  oils  resemble  those 
obtained  from  Trinidad  or  Cuba  bitumen. 

The  annexed  table  will  afford  some  guide  to  the  manu 
facturer  regarding  the  proportion  that  crude  oil  bears  to  the 
volatile  matters  of  the  material,  and  also  regarding  the  loca 
lities  of  coals,  shales,  bitumen,  etc.  The  refined  products 
of  crude  coal  oil  depend  so  much  upon  their  treatment 
that  it  is  difficult  to  express  in  figures  their  actual  amount. 
Breckenridge  coal,  as  has  been  shown,  gives — 

130  galls,  crude  oil  per  ton. 

From  which  we  obtain  80  gallons  illuminating  oil, 
and         .  12       l        paraffin  oil, 

Making .         .        .        .     92       "      in  all  of  marketable  oils. 
Boghead  coal  oil  yields  120  galls,  crude  oil  per  ton. 

From  which  we  obtain  65  gallons  illuminating  oil, 

7       "       paraffin  oil, 
and.        .        .".       .  12  Ibs.   paraffin. 

Equal  to  about        .•        .  84  gallons  of  marketable  oils. 
Yet  by  experimental  distillation  Boghead  coal  yields  more 
volatile   matter,  and  leaves  less  coke  than  the  Brecken 
ridge. 


56 


VOLATILE   MATTERS,   ETC.,   FROM   COALS. 


Locality. 

Volatile 
Matters. 

Coke. 

Yield  of  Grade  Oil 
per  ton. 

England. 
Derbyshire 

4836 
44 
39 
42 
35 

70  10 
38 
51 

61-050 
43 

27 

61-30 
35 
38 
50 
36  • 
46 
41 
34 
45 
42 
60 

71 
38 

70 
26 
70 
78 
71 

53 
56 
61 
58 
65 

29-90 
62 
49 

30-65 

57 
73 

38-55 
65 
52 
50 
64 
54 
59 
.66 
.64 
58 
40 

29 

52 

30 
Limest'e. 
30 
22 
25 

82  gallons. 
74 
50 
50 
48 

120 
40 
96 

110 
64 

47 

130 

47 

72 

8 

71 
60 
86 
74 
56 
64 

170  gals,  per  ton. 

From  75  to  85  per 
cent,    of   Lamp 
Oil. 

120 
70 

118 
18 
116 

6  to  8 

Wigan  Cannel     .     .     .     .     . 

Poole  (Shale)  

Newcastle       

Scotland. 
Boghead         

Scotch  Cannel    

Provincial. 
Albert  Coal,  N.  Brunswick   . 
Asphalte  Rock,          " 
Pictou  Shale,  Nova  Scotia    . 

American. 
Breckenridge  

Erie  Railroad       

Falling  Rock 

Pittsburg         .     .     . 

Kanawha   

Elk  River 

Cannelton 

Coshocton   Ohio  

Darlington    Pa  

Ouachita  River,  Arkansas     . 

Bitumen,  etc.,  United  States. 
Ritchie  County,  Virginia  .     . 
Pennsvlvania 

Petroleum  Springs,  Alabama, 
Georgia,  Tennessee,  Ken 
tucky,  Virginia,  Maryland, 
Ohio,  Penns'lvania,  Canada 

Cuba. 

Trinidad. 
Bitumen              

Canada  etc. 

Illinois  "  G-as  Stone"    .     .     . 

PEAT.  57 

Actual  test  by  retorting  and  distilling  must  be  made 
before  judging  of  the  value  of  any  particular  coal  for 
oils. 

Persons  unaccustomed  to  handling  coals  may  judge 
roughly  of  their  value  for  oil  by  noticing  their  weight,  lus 
tre,  etc. 

As  a  rule,  a  dull  fracture,  great  comparative  lightness, 
and  easy  inflammability  in  the  flame  of  a  candle,  are  favor 
able  signs  of  an  oil  coal. 

Sometimes  shales  of  very  inferior  appearance  are  rich  in 
oil.  Commercially,  the  value  of  any  coal  for  oil  will 
depend  upon  its  situation.  There  are  places  where  the 
distillation  of  shales  can  be  profitably  made  by  the  heat 
afforded  by  ordinary  bituminous  coals  ;  shales  never  yield 
ing  coke  of  any  value. 

A  coal  which  will  yield  sixty  gallons  of  crude  oil,  or 
forty  gallons  of  refined  oil  for  lamps,  may  be  regarded  as 
an  excellent  article  when  it  will  afford  coke  enough  to  sup 
ply  the  heat  for  its  own  distillation. 

Peat  has  been  distilled  for  oils  in  Ireland,  and  in  Kildare 
the  extensive  works  of  the  Irish  Peat  Company  have  been 
in  operation  for  that  purpose  for  some  time.  One  tori  of 
peat  yields  on  an  average : 

Liquids  (not  oily),  G5  Gallons. 

Tar  6         " 

From  which  are  produced  : — 

Lamp  oil, 2  Gallons. 

Lubricating  oil,      ....  1  Gallon. 

Paraffin,         .         .         .         .         .  3     Ibs. 

Ammonia,      .        .        .  .  3     Ibs. 

Acetic  acid,    .....  5i  Ibs. 

Naphtha/        .....  8     Ibs. 
And  25  per  cent,  of  charcoal 


58  PEAT. 

Thus  far,  however,  peat  has  not  been  a  successful  com 
petitor  of  coal,  bitumen,  or  other  more  compact  carbona 
ceous  materials. 


DISTILLATION  QF  COALS.  59 


CHAPTER  IY. 

Nature  of  the  products  distilled  from  Bituminous  Substances. — Modes  of 
obtaining  Oils. — Retorts. — D-shaped  Retorts. — Revolving  Retorts. — Ver 
tical  Retorts.— Clay  Retorts.— Brick  Ovens.— Coke  Ovens.— Stills.— Con- 
densers. — Agitators. — Super-heaters. 

To  obtain  oils  from  coals  and  other  dry  bituminous  mate 
rials,  it  is  necessary  in  the  first  place  that  they  shall  be 
submitted  to  dry  or  decomposing  distillation,  by  which  oils 
are  formed,  the  coke  or  fixed  carbon  remaining  with  the 
ash  in  the  distilling  vessel.  The  economy  and  perfection 
of  this  operation  depend  upon  the  kind  of  retort  used,  the 
degree  of  heat  applied,  and  the  efficiency  of  the  condens 
ing  part  of  the  apparatus.  If  a  given  quantity  of  coal  be 
distilled  in  a  retort  or  close  vessel  at  a  heat  of  1,200°  or 
thereabouts,  in  the  manner  that  coal  gas  is  made,  a  large 
quantity  of  gas  will  be  formed.  The  oily  products  will  be 
small  in  quantity,  and  consist  chiefly  of  benzole,  naphtha, 
naphthalin,  carbolic  acid,  piccamar,  pittical,  copnomor, 
and  other  hydrocarbons,  which,  so  far  as  the  oil  manufac 
turer's  objects  are  concerned,  may  be  called  impurities. 
They  are  not  impurities ;  but  in  the  progress  of  chemical 
science  they  may  hereafter  become  valuable.  Again,  the 
crude  oils  obtained  by  such  a  heat  contain  more  carbon 
than  those  produced  by  a  lower  heat,  much  of  the  hydro 
gen  being  driven  off  from  the  coal  in  carburetted  gases. 
But  if  the  heat  to  which  the  coals  are  exposed  does  not 
exceed  750°  or  800°  Fah.,  a  different  class  of  results  fol- 


60 


KETORTS. 


lows.  Instead  of  true  benzole,  eupion*  will  be  formed,  tlie 
naphthalin  will  be  replaced  by  paraffin,  the  carbolic  acid, 
piccamar,  copnomor,  etc.,  will  be  less  in  quantity,  and  there 
will  be  a  great  increase  of  the  oils  employed  in  lamps  and 
for  oiling  machinery. 

To  obtain  these  results,  not  a  little  will  depend  upon  the 
form  of  the  retort,  and  the  mode  by  which  the  oily  vapors 
generated  in  it  are  condensed.  The  retort  which  will  per 
mit  the  charge  of  coal  to  be  equally  heated  throughout,  is 
best ;  for  if  the  heat  be  strong  on  one  part  of  the  charge, 
and  weak  on  another  part,  the  former  will  produce  perma 
nent  gas  and  impure  oils,  while  the  latter  has,  perhaps,  a 
temperature  too  low  to  produce  oils  at  all.  It  is  on  this 
account  that  revolving  retorts,  which  keep  the  charge  in 
constant  motion,  have  been  introduced. 


Retort.— Elevation. 


Scale 

Eetort  and  Main.— Section. 


r  Full  descriptions  of  all  the  retorts  and  ovens  which  have 

been  experimented  with,  tried,  patented,  used,  and  in  use, 

*  The  composition  of  benzole  is  C12.  H8.     That  of  eupion  is  C5.  H8. 


RETORTS. 


61 


for  distilling  oils  from  coals,  would  occupy  too  much  space. 
For  such  descriptions  it  is  necessary  to  refer  to  the  Ame 
rican,  English,  and  French  records  of  patent  inventions. 
Great  as  their  number  is,  it  is  still  increasing.  Many  per 
sons  besides  chemists,  who  are  concerned  in  this  kind  of 
manufacture,  and  tyros  in  the  art,  have  a  fancy  for  some 
novelty  in  which  neither  philosophy  nor  chemistry  can  dis 
cover  any  merit,  and  vast  sums  of  money  have  been 
wasted  in  seeking  the  talisman  that  would  convert  every 
thing  into  oil. 

Horizontal  D-shaped  retorts,  of  large  size,  two  or  three 
being  heated  over  one  furnace,  have  proved  satisfactory ; 


Revolving  Eetort— Front  Elevation. 


and  in  some  instances  they  have  taken  the  places  of  the 
revolving  cylinders.     They  may  be  made  of  iron  or  clay. 


62 


REVOLVING  RETORTS. 


They  are  simple  in  construction,  and  readily  charged  and 
discharged.  They  may  be  made  from  thirty  to  forty-five 
inches  in  width,  and  from  eight  to  ten  feet  in  length.  The 
latter  size  will  distil  three  charges  of  cannel  coal,  of  450Ibs. 
each,  in  twenty-four  hours,  at  a  heat  not  exceeding  780° 
Fah.  Forty  of  these  retorts  and  more  may  discharge  into 
one  main,  from  which  the  gas  is  conveyed  to  a  gasometer, 
to  be  afterwards  used  for  fuel  or  for  lighting.  It  is  neces 
sary  that  the  discharge-pipes  leading  from  these  retorts  to 
the  main  should  not  be  less  than  eight  inches  in  diameter, 


Revolving  Eetort— Plan. 

to  prevent  pressure  and  insure  safety  ;  and  they  should 


REVOLVING  RETORTS.  63 

inserted  into  the  end  of  the  retort  opposite  the  head  and 
furnace,  and  upon  a  level  with  the  upper  part  of  the  charge. 
The  main  itself  should  be  three  feet  in  diameter. 


REVOLVING    RETORTS. 

Eevolving  retorts  were  employed  by  Gingembre,  of 
France,*  and  by  others,  many  years  ago,  in  the  manufac 
ture  of  coal  gas ;  but  from  their  cost  and  liability  to  get 
out  of  order,  they  were  discarded.  Since  January,  1858, 
several  patents  have  been  granted  in  the  United  States  for 
this  kind  of  retort,  as  being  adapted  to  the  manufacture  of 
oils  from  coals,  shales,  etc.  In  some  establishments  they 
are  now  in  use  ;  in  others  they  have  been  replaced  by  large 
D-shaped  stationary  retorts. 

They  are  iron  or  clay  cylinders,  frequently  six  feet  in 
diameter  and  eight  feet  long,  sustained  upon  an  axle  at 
each  end,  the  vapors  passing  through  the  axle  opposite  the 
furnace,  or  head,  where  they  are  charged  through  a  man 
hole  in  the  usual  manner.  They  are  kept  in  motion  by 
machinery  propelled  by  steam,  making  two  or  more  revo 
lutions  per  minute.  The  advantages  of  the  revolving 
retort  are,  that  the  charge  being  constantly  agitated  by  the 
motion  of  the  cylinder,  every  part  of  the  material  is  from 
time  to  time  brought  in  contact  with  a  heated  surface,  so 
that  it  is  exhausted  in  much  less  time  than  it  could  be  in  a 
stationary  retort ;  thus,  also,  there  is  a  saving  of  fuel.  A 
retort  of  the  above  dimensions  will  run  six  charges  of  one 
ton  each,  in  twenty-four  hours,  of  ordinary  cannel  coals. 
The  objections  urged  against  them,  by  those  who  have 
given  them  a  trial,  are  their  cost  and  liability  to  get  out  of 
order.  They  also  grind  the  coal  to-  a  powder,  which,  by 

*  Brevets  £  Invention,  vol.  ix.,  p.  235. 


64  BRICK  OVENS. 

being  carried  along  with  the  oily  vapors,  is  apt  to  fill  up 
the  condensing  worm,  and  its  admixture  with  the  oil 
increases  the  cost  of  purification.  But  the  rapidity  by 
which  they  distil  the  coal,  and  the  saving  of  fuel,  are  cer 
tain  results  ;  and  the  ingenuity  of  numerous  inventors  may 
hereafter  relieve  them  from  the  above  drawbacks. 

The  revolving  retort  cannot  be  employed  in  the  decom 
position  of  Albert  coal,  nor  any  of  the  softer  bitumens. 
These  substances  melt,  and  adhere  to  the  iron  closely,  and 
therefore  cannot  be  agitated  like  dry  coals,  when  they  are 
heated. 

With  the  above-mentioned  objects  in  view,  namely,  the 
agitation  of  the  material  while  it  is  exposed  to  heat,  oscil 
lating  retorts  have  been  recommended  and  patented.  Iron 
bars  are  fixed  longitudinally  in  the  cylinders,  to  prevent 
the  charge  from  sliding,  and  to  insure  its  rolling  over. 

BRICK  OVENS. 

Brick  ovens  have  been  introduced  to  decompose  coals 
and  produce  oils.  They  are  made  of  fire-brick,  and  laid 
in  fire-clay.  Their  form  is  such,  that  the  heat  is  distri 
buted  over  a  large  surface.  These  ovens  are  incapable  of 
resisting  pressure,  and  they  are  apt  to  crack  and  grow 
leaky.  If  they  are  ever  found  to  be  economical,  it  will  be 
in  situations  where  coals  and  coal  shales  are  cheap  and 
plenty,  and  where  the  loss  of  vapor  and  fuel  are  not  things 
of  large  account. 

VERTICAL  RETORTS. 

In  France,  at  Mehlam  on  the  Ehine,  and  other  places  in 
Europe,  upright  retorts  are  used.  They  have  been  em- 


VERTICAL  RETORTS.  65 

ployed  in  Ireland  for  the  distillation  of  peat.  They  are 
filled  from  above,  and  when  the  charge  is  exhausted  it  is 
drawn  from  beneath.  They  require  a  great  deal  of  fuel. 
The  yield  of  oil  is  small  and  impure. 

Patents  have  been  granted  in  the  United  States  for 
several  vertical  retorts,  in  which  improvements  are  sup 
posed  to  have  been  made  upon  those  used  in  the  Old 
Country ;  but  in  none  of  these  have  the  advantages  sought 
for  been  obtained.  It  is  obvious  that  the  discharge  of  the 
gases  from  which  the  oils  are  condensed  must  take  place 
above  the  mass  of  the  material  in  the  retort.  The  sooner 
the  oily  vapor  of  the  charge  is  removed  from  the  retort 
and  condensed,  the  greater  will  be  the  amount  of  oil  pro 
duced  ;  for  if  that  vapor  is  exposed  to  a  heat  equal  to  that 
by  which  it  was  first  formed,  it  will  itself  be  decomposed, 
and  a  part  of  it  converted  into  permanent  gases.  Again, 
the  vapor  first  formed  will  be  deprived  of  a  part  of  its 
hydrogen,  and  there  will  be  a  diminution  in  the  quantity 
of  lamp  oil. 

Agitators,  or  stirrers  in  retorts,  have  been  introduced 
for  the  purposes  before- mentioned.  Count  de  Hompesch 
patented  and  used  an  Archimedean  screw  nearly  twenty 
years  ago.  By  means  of  this  screw  the  material  was  agi 
tated,  and  finally  discharged  at  the  end  of  his  retort. 
Several  American  patents  have  been  granted  for  machinery 
to  stir  or  agitate  the  charge  of  material,  both  in  horizontal 
and  upright  retorts  during  its  distillation.  In  situations 
where  coal  is  abundant  the  value  of  these  inventions 
will  be  carefully  weighed  against  -the  complexity  of  the 
machinery  and  its  constant  wear. 

In  order  to  apply  a  certain  degree  of  heat  to  the  sub 
stances  undergoing  distillation,  baths  of  fusible  metal  have 
been  placed  in  retorts  and  stills,  the  melting  point  of%  the 


CLAY  RETORTS. 


metal  being  adjusted  to  the  degree  of  heat  required;  but 
the  experienced  distiller  calls  for  no  such  aid. 


CLAY  RETORTS. 

Clay  retorts  were  used  in  the  manufacture  of  coal  gas 
many  years  ago,  and  a  contest  has  long  been  carried  on 
between  their  advocates  and  those  who  prefer  iron  for  that 
purpose.  In  Europe  the  clay  retort  is  gradually  coming 
into  use.  In  Scotland  the  old  iron  cylinder  is  now  seldom 
seen  in  gas  works.  The  manufacturers  of  coal  gas  in  the 
United  States  are  yearly  submitting  clay  to  the  test ;  but  up 
to  the  present  time,  of  all  the  retorts  in  operation,  a  very 
few  are  composed  of  that  material.  When  the  clay  cylin 
der  is  first  charged,  gas  escapes  through  the  fine  fissures 
opened  by  the  baking  of  the  substance.  These  openings, 
however,  are  soon  closed  with  carbon,  and  the  retort  is 
perfect.  The  chief  advantage  of  the  clay  retort  is  its  dura 
bility.  In  the  distillation  of  coals  for  the  production  of 
oils,  they  are,  doubtless,  valuable,  and  the  ordinary  mecha 
nic  of  the  country  understands  the  methods  by  which  they 
are  put  in  working  order.  In  their  use,  it  should  always 
be  understood  that  they  will  not  withstand  as  much  pres 
sure  as  iron,  and  therefore  their  discharge-pipes  should  be 
large,  and  their  condensing  apparatus  open  and  free. 

Among  the  numerous-  means  applied  to  the  extraction  of 
oils  from  coals,  coke  furnaces  merit  some  attention.  The 
cutting  and  piling  up  of  mounds  of  wood,  covering  them 
with  earth,  and  firing  them  to  obtain  charcoal,  is  a  process 
familiar  to  almost  every  one.  In  this  operation  all  the 
volatile  products  of  the  wood  escape  in  gas  and  smoke, 
and  are  lost.  Within  the  past  century  charcoal  furnaces 
have  been  invented  by  which  those  volatile  products  are 


COKE   OVENS. 


67 


collected,  and  the  distillation  of  wood  has  produced  a  new 
class  of  substances;  the  chief  of  which  are  acetic  acid, 
pyroxylic  spirit,  creasote,  picamar,  copnomor,  paraffin, 
eupion,  etc. 

In  China,  Kussia,  and  Sweden,  the  carbonization  of  wood 
is  effected  in  pits,  or  furnaces  not  dissimilar  to  those  for 
which  patents  have  been  granted  in  this  country.  The 
furnace  is  in  the  shape  of  an  inverted  cone,  and  the 
receptacle  for  the  tar  is  at  its  side.  Coal  is  converted  into 
coke  in  a  similar  manner.  In  Europe  coke  has  been  exten 
sively  used  in  the  manufacture  of  iron.  In  Great  Britain 
it  is  burned  on  railways  to  avoid  the  smoke  produced  by 
coals,  and  coking  furnaces  are  in  constant  use  for  its  sup 
ply.  In  1781  the  Earl  of  Dundonald  obtained  oils  by  heat 
ing  a  quantity  of  coals  in  a  coke  furnace.  The  oils  were 
condensed  from  the  expelled  vapors,  and  coke  remained. 


Exhaust  and  Condenser. — Section.    Scale  of  Coke  Oven. — Plan  and  Section. 

The  manufacture  of  coal  gas  now  supplies  vast  quantities 
of  coke,  and  the  oils  are  called  coal  tar. 


68 


COKE   OVENS. 


In  August,  1853,  two  patents  were  granted  in  England 
for  upright  coking  furnaces,  the  object  being  to  obtain 
crude  oils,  and  not  coke.  In  these,  and  in  other  instances, 
the  coals  are  produced  in  large  perpendicular  cones,  or 
cylinders  of  masonry.  A  fire  is  lighted  below,  and  as  it 
advances  upwards  the  volatile  parts  of  the  material  are 
driven  off  by  the  heat  produced  by  itself,  and  without  the 
aid  of  any  external  heat.  Discharge  pipes  are  fixed  at  the 
top  of  the  furnace,  and  communicate  with  a  condenser  in 
which  the  oils  are  formed. 

The  first  objection  that  presents  itself  to  this  method  of 
obtaining  oils  is  the  admission  of  air  to  the  material,  by 
which  combustion  rather  than  distillation  is  the  result.  To 


Coke  Oven.— Section. 

afford  a  remedy  for  this  difficulty  Mr.  Little  obtained  an 


COKE  OVENS. 


69 


English  patent  in  1854,  the  invention  of  which  is  to  draw, 
or  drive  through  the  fire  a  blast  of  air,  which  is  then  said 
to  be  "burned"  or  deprived  of  its  free  oxygen,  so  that  the 
combustion  of  the  material  is  avoided,  and  the  distillation 
carried  on  by  the  heat  afforded  by  the  gases  emanating 
from  the  material  itself.  In  this  process  the  charge  con 
tained  in  the  coking  furnace  is  first  fired  at  the  bottom, 
then  a  current  of  air  is  drawn  through  the  fire  and  the 
material  in  the  furnace  by  an  aspirator  or  exhausting  pump, 
the  oily  vapors  being  drawn  into  condensing  chambers,  or 
worms,  in  the  manner  practised  in  ordinary  distillations. 
An  upward  distillation  has  been  opposed  on  the  ground 
that  the  oil,  which  at  first  would  be  at  the  top  of  the  fur- 


srt. 


Coke  Oven.— Plan. 


nace,  falls  back,  and  undergoes  repeated  decompositions 
before  its  vapors  finally  escape.     In  practice  this  objection 


70  COKE   OVENS. 

is  groundless,  for  if  the  vapors  from  which  the  oils  are 
condensed  are  light,  they  make  their  exit  immediately ;  if 
they  are  heavy,  and  condense  in  the  furnace,  their  oils  are 
improved  by  further  decomposition. 

Patents  have  been  granted  in  the  United  States 
for  similar  coke  furnaces.  In  one  of  these  the  current  of 
air  is  directed  downwards  through  the  fire,  material,  and 
furnace,  by  a  jet  of  steam  thrown  into  the  discharging  pipe 
below.  After  a  wood  fire  has  been  kindled  at  the  top  of 
the  furnace,  and  a  stratum  of  hot  coals  is  spread  over  the 
charge,  a  downward  current  of  air  is  started,  and  continued 
until  all  the  volatile  matter  is  expelled  from  the  material. 
It  does  not  appear,  however,  that  reversing  the  air  current 
is  a  matter  of  any  importance  in  the  operation ;  the  chief 
object  being  to  force  it  through  heated  bodies,  and  thereby 
deprive  it  of  a  part  of  its  oxygen  before  it  reaches  the 
charge.  Ingenious  as  this  method  of  distillation  really  is, 
its  economy  is  doubtful,  for  sufficient  heat  cannot  be 
applied  to  the  charge  in  the  furnace  without  the  admission 
of  oxygen,  and  that  oxygen,  when  admitted,  results  in 
more  or  less  actual  combustion,  which  reduces  the  quantity 
of  oils.  This  method  has  been  extensively  tested  by  the 
New  York  Kerosene  Oil  Company,  who,  according  to  their 
published  reports,  distilled  sixty -eight  and  one-seventh  gal 
lons  of  merchantable  oils  and  paraffin  from  one  ton  of 
Boghead  coal.  By  the  large  D-shaped  retort  seventy  gal 
lons  of  such  oils  can  be  obtained. 

From  what  has  been  stated,  this  question  presents  itself — 
What  is  the  cheapest,  most  efficient,  and  economical  retort 
for  manufactories  of  coal  oils  ?  Perhaps  foremost  in  the 
reply  stands  the  large  horizontal  D-shaped  retort — next  the 
revolving  retort,  which  for  running  the  greatest  quantity  of 
oil  in  the  shortest  space  of  time  stands  unrivalled. 


CONDENSERS. 


71 


Next  in  importance  -to  the  form  and  the  mode  of  apply 
ing  heat  to  the  retorts  is  the  condenser,  or  C9oling  appara 
tus,  in  which  the  gases  and  vapors  of  the  material  assume 
the  liquid  form.  It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  general  rule, 
that  the  sooner  the  lighter  vapors  generated  in  the  retort 
are  withdrawn  from  it  and  cooled,  the  greater  will  be  the 
yield  of  oil.  The  discharge  pipes  of  the  retorts  employed 


Crude  Oil  Condenser.— Plan. 


in  the  manufacture  of  coal  gas  are  upright  cylinders,  in 
which  a  part  of  the  volatile  products  of  the  distilled  coal 


72 


CONDENSERS. 


are  condensed,  and  fall  back  into  the  retort,  where  they  are 
decomposed,  and  the  quantity  of  gas  thereby  increased. 

By  this  management  the  gas  is  made  by  the  reduction  of 
the  hydrogen  of  the  coal  tar,  which,  consequently,  contains 


Crude  Oil  Condenser. 


Longitudinal  Section. 


End  Elevation. 


much  carbon,  and  is  thereby  rendered  unfit  for  the  manu 
facture  of  oils  for  lamps.*     The  exit,  or  discharge  pipes, 

*  See  table  of -homologous  compounds. 


STILLS.  73 

should  therefore  open  outwards  from  the  retort,  as  near 
to  the  charge  undergoing  decomposition  as  may  be  conve 
nient. 

Again,  pressure  upon  the  vapors  generated,  and  the 
retort  itself,  should  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible.  The 
dipping  of  the  discharge  pipe  in  a  main,  to  seal  it  against  a 
return  of  gas,  causes  a  pressure  according  to'  the  extent  of 
that  dip.  The  greater  the  dip  the  greater  the  pressure,  and 
the  quantity  of  oil  will  be  diminished  accordingly.  It  is 
on  this  account  that  exhausting  pumps  have  been  applied 
to  the  gas  pipe  leading  from  the  main.  The  effect  is  to 
exhaust  the  charge  in  one  half  of  the  time  usually  required 
for  that  purpose,  and  with  less  heat  in  the  furnace.  But 
exhausting  pumps  are  expensive,  and,  when  employed  as 
above,  require  to  be  kept  constantly  in  motion.  Therefore 
when  the  crude  oil  is  made  at  the  mouth  of  a  coal  mine 
their  economy  will  afford  matter  for  consideration. 

The  condenser  may  consist  of  the  common  worm  gene 
rally  used  in  distilleries — a  serpentine  pipe  passing  through 
a  cistern  of  water,  or  an  open-chamber,  all  of  which  must 
be  kept  constantly  cold  by  an  influx  of  water. 

But  when  much  paraffin  is  present  it  is  necessary  to 
keep  the  water  at  a  temperature  of  70°  or  80°  to  prevent 
the  paraffin  from  cooling,  and  obstructing  the  apparatus. 
The  gas  that  remains  after  the  condensation  has  been  com 
pleted  may  be  collected  in  gasometers,  and  employed  for 
illuminating  purposes — to  afford  heat  for  the  subsequent 
distillation  of  the  oils,  or  to  produce  steam. 

STILLS. 

The  variety  of  stills,  and  the  contrivances  applied  to 
them,  for  the  distillation  of  coal  and  other  oils,  equals  that 


74  STILLS. 

of  retorts.  Experience  has  led  to  the  almost  general  adop 
tion  of  cast  iron  stills  for  those  purposes.  They  have  been 
made  with  bottoms  concave  upwards  and  with  hemisphe 
rical  tops,  with  bottoms  concave  downwards  and  flat  tops, 
some  broad  and  flat,  others  high  and  cylindrical — some 
have  been  placed  in  steam  jackets — many  are  exposed  to 
the  naked  fire.  The  different  opinions  prevailing  among 
the  manufacturers  prevent  any  settled  form  being  esta 
blished.  Stills  made  of  boiler-plate  iron  have  been  tried ; 
but  when  a  high  heat  is  required,  and  they  are  exposed  to 
the  direct  action  of  the  fire,  they  are  soon  destroyed,  or 
commence  leaking  at  the  rivets.  When  the  heat  exceeds 
660°,  which  is  necessary  in  the  distillation  of  the  heavier 
oils  and  paraffin,  they  are  in  danger  unless  they  are  pro 
tected  by  the  admission  of  steam,  and  guarded  against  the 
fire  of  the  furnace.  Whether  the  still  be  of  cast  or  sheet 
iron,  it  is  always  unsafe  to  run  the  oil  down  so  as  to  "  coke" 
its  bottom. 

In  order  to  facilitate  the  flow  of  oils,  stirrers  have  been 
placed  in  the  still  to  agitate  the  charge  during  its  distilla 
tion.  The  effect  of  these  stirrers  will  ever  be  to  render  the 
distillation  more  or  less  imperfect,  by  lifting  the  impurities 
upwards  into  the  current  of  vapor  rushing  outwards  into 
the  worm.  Stills  with  double  necks  have  been  tried,  but 
without  any  real  advantage.  Some  have  preferred  a  large 
still,  and  they  have  been  made  to  contain  three  thousand 
gallons.  Such  stills  are  more  liable  to  accident,  and  dan 
gerous  in  the  event  of  fracture  than  smaller  ones,  and  have 
no  superiority  in  regard  to  time  in  working. 

The  first  distillation  o£  the  oils  may  be  carried  on  con 
tinuously  by  admitting  into  the  still  a  small  stream  after 
the  heat  is  up  and  the  distillate  begins  to  flow  from  the 
worm.  But  this  mode  requires  more  than  an  ordinary 


STILLS. 


75 


degree  of  heat  to  compensate  for  the  caloric  taken  by  the 
inflowing  oil  to  bring  it  up  to  the  distilling  point.  Sim 
plicity  of  machinery  and  steadiness  of  operation  are  always 
desirable ;  on  this  account,  for  reasons  already  stated,  and 
from  many  actual  trials,  the  author  recommends  that  the 


Still.— Section. 
References. 


A  Gooseneck. 
B  Dome. 
C  Kettle. 


d  Valve  on  Gooseneck. 
e  Steam  pipe. 
/  Blotr-off  pipe. 
g  Manhole. 


largest  stills,  and  those  employed  for  distilling  the  crude 
oils  as  thev  come  from  the  retorts  or  oil  springs,  shall  not 


76 


STILLS. 


exceed  in  contents  sixteen  hundred  gallons,  and  as  there 
is  generally  a  loss  on  the  first  distillation  of  ten  or  twelve 
per  cent,  in  carbon  and  impurities,  the  working  contents  of 
the  refining  stills  need  not  exceed  fourteen  hundred  gal 
lons.  The  diameter  of  the  largest  stills  may  be  eight  feet 
six  inches,  with  a  height  of  four  feet  six  inches.  The 
crown  should  be  moderately  concave  upwards  to  the  neck. 
Those  stills  must  be  carefully  protected  against  the  direct 
action  of  the  fire  by  arches  of  fire-brick.  Common  or 
superheated  steam  may  be  introduced  into  them  through 
large  rose  jets  opening  above,  or  into  the  charge.  Steam 
always  facilitates  their  operation. 

In  the  cut  on  p.  75,  a  valve  is  represented  upon  the 
gooseneck.  This  has  been  used  by  some  persons  to  enable 
them  to  blow  out  the  tarry  contents  of  the  still  by  the  pipe, 
fj  by  admitting  steam  by  the  pipe,  e,  closing  the  valve,  d, 
and  opening  the  valve  or  the  pipe,  /  When  the  still  bot 
toms  are  made  convex,  however,  the  ordinary  pipe  and 
cock  can  be  used  to  draw  off  the  residuum.  The  draw-off 


Still.— Flanged  Bottom. 

pipe  may  be  of  wrought  iron  of  two  inches  diameter 


STILL  AND   CONDENSER.  77 

inserted  into  the  side  of  the  still  by  a  screw,  and  secured 
on  its  inner  end  by  a  locknut.  The  cock  may  be  iron  with 
a  brass  plug. 

Where  high  temperatures  are  required,  so  as  to  distil 
various  oils  to  a  pitch  or  coke,  the  still  represented  by  the 
cut,  page  76,  has  been  found  to  answer  the  purpose.  The 
bottom,  A,  is  two  inches  thick,  and  is  flanged  to  the  side,  B, 
with  three-quarter  inch  bolts,  six  inches  apart.  The  sides 
are  flanged  to  the  dome  or  cover,  c,  in  the  same  way.  The 
sides  form  a  cylinder  when  cast,  and  the  outlet  pipe,  D, 
three  inches  in  diameter  and  one  foot  long,  is  cast  with  it. 
This  still,  seven  feet  in  diameter  and  four  feet  deep,  was 
used  by  Henry  Gesner  in  distilling  candle  tar,  and  by  the 
author  in  distilling  coal  tar.  In  both  cases  the  distillation 
was  carried  on  until  a  coke  remained,  and  the  heat  was  so, 
that  upon  looking  into  the  furnace  the  concave  bottom  of 
the  still  was  of  a  bright  red  color.  .  When  the  bottom  was 
burned  out,  which  was  the  case  every  two  months,  a  new 
bottom  was  bolted  to  the  sides. 

The  diagram  on  the  following  page  exhibits  an  arrange 
ment  of  still  and  worm,  or  condenser,  in  section.  The  still 
is  shown  with  a  loose  bottom,  but  that  is  not  absolutely 
necessary.  The  sides  and  bottom  may  form  one  casting. 

The  still,  A,  is  a  cylinder  of  cast  iron  seven  feet  in  diame 
ter  and  one  inch  in  thickness,  four  feet  deep,  sitting  in  a 
groove,  V,  which  is  carried  around  the  bottom,  B.  This 
bottom  is  one  and  a  half  inches  thick.  The  dome,  c,  is 
low,  not  rising  more  than  one  foot  five  inches  above  the 
level  of  the  top  of  the  side.  The  gooseneck,  D,  is  three 
quarters  of  an  inch  thick,  one  foot  three  inches  wide,  where 
it  is  fastened  to  the  dome,  and  tapering  to  eight  inches 
where  it  joins  the  pipe  which  connects  it  with  the  worm,  E. 
The  pipe  connecting  the  gooseneck  and  worm  tapers  from 


78 


STILL  AND  CONDENSER. 


STILL  AND   CONDENSER.  79 

eight  to  four  inches  where  it  joins  the  worm,  E.  The  worm 
is  a  spiral  coil  of  wrought  iron  pipe,  fastened  securely  by 
iron  stays,  F,  into  the  worm  tank,  G.  This  tank  is  eight 
feet  in  diameter,  and  six  feet  deep.  The  worm  coil  con 
tains  one  hundred  feet  of  pipe,  tapering  from  four  inches 
in  diameter  at  H,  to  two  and  a  half  inches  at  the  tail-pipe, 
I.  It  is  made  by  joining  equal  lengths  of  four  inches, 
three  inches,  and  two  and  a  half  inch  pipe.  Where  the 
tail-pipe  passes  through  the  worm  tank  it  is  secured  and 
leakage  around  the  pipe  prevented  by  two  locknuts,  one  on 
the  inside  and  the  other  on  the  outside  of  the  stave,  a 
thread  being  cut  on  the  pipe  long  enough  to  pass  through 
the  stave  and  afford  room  for  the  locknuts  to  be  applied. 
The  worm  tank  is  seven  feet  six  inches  in  diameter  and  six 
feet  deep,  made  of  three  inch  staves,  and  bottom,  and 
hooped  with  four  hoops,  three  inches  wide  and  three  quar 
ters  of  an  inch  thick. 

The  still  is  heated  by  the  furnace,  J,  when  open  fire  is 
used.  The  fire  bars,  K,  are  four  feet  in  length,  and  cover 
one  foot  six  inches  in  width.  The  furnace  door,  L,  is  one 
foot  four  inches  high,  and  one  foot  three  inches  wide.  The 
ashpit,  M,  corresponds  with  it  in  size.  '  The  water  pan,  N, 
corresponds  with  the  ashpit  in  width,  and  is  six  inches  deep. 
The  length  of  ashpit  and  pan  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
furnace  bars.  The  space,  o,  around  the  still  is  four  inches 
wide,  and  the  walls,  p,  are  one  brick  or  eight  inches  thick. 
The  throttles,  Q,  are  eight  inches  deep  and  four  inches 
wide.  They  are  small  flues  which  distribute  the  heat 
around  the  still.  The  still  bottom  rests  upon  fire  tiles 
which  are  laid  in  a  circle  to  suit  it.  These  tiles  cover  the 
throttles.  The  bridge,  s,  prevents  the  heat  from  escaping 
at  once,  by  the  flue,  T,  to  the  chimney,  and  brings  it  for 
ward  around  the  front  of  the  still.  The  wall,  u,  is  the 


80 


PETROLEUM   STILL. 


division  wall  between  the  still  house  and  refinery.  (See 
drawings  of  refineries.) 

In  some  factories  the  wall  around  the  still  is  made  in 
sections,  so  as  to  be  easily  removed  when  a  new  kettle  or 
bottom  is  to  be  inserted.  This  plan  is  the  most  convenient, 
though  the  most  expensive  at  the  outset. 

The  still  commonly  employed  by  the  American  petro 
leum  refiners,  is  shown  in  the  diagram  annexed.  It  is  a 


L                           " 
L 
'____. 

*. 

o 

c^U-?  —                         —  s  *  
-  12/-0'-  > 

A 

oaooo 

« 

\               N 

9 

/ 

Common  Petroleum  Still. 


cylinder  of  boiler  iron  twelve  feet  long  and  nine  feet  in 
diameter.  Its  working  contents  are  eighty  barrels,  or 
three  thousand  two  hundred  gallons.  The  gooseneck  is 
a  four-inch  elbow  connected  with  four-inch  wrought  iron 
pipe.  The  draw-off  cock  is  at  the  bottom  and  end  furthest 
from  the  fire,  which  is  applied  much  in  the  same  way  as  to 
a  steam  boiler.  The  plates  are  in  twelve  feet  lengths  and 
present  no  riveted  seams  to  the  action  of  the  fire.  The 
use  of  wrought  iron  for  stills  is  perhaps  the  most  economi 
cal  in  the  aggregate.  Cast  iron  is  exposed  to  the  danger  of 
fracture  when  it  is  cooled  suddenly.  A  current  of  air  from 
an  open  furnace  door  will  often  cause  the  bottoms  to 


WASHERS  OR   AGITATORS.. 


81 


crack.     In  such  case,  the  mode  of  repairing  is  by  a  plate 
of  boiler  iron  being  bolted  down  over  the  fracture. 

There   have  been  many  alleged  improvements  in  the 


Vertical  Washer.— Section. 

construction  of  stills.     Most  of  them  involve  either  care, 


82 


WASHERS  OR   AGITATORS. 


which  can  hardly  be  expected  from  the  ordinary  workmen ; 
or  the  use  of  expensive  methods  of  obtaining  heat.  Sim 
plicity  in  construction  and  in  working  must  be  the  prime 


Horizontal  Washer  and  Tanks.— End  Elevation  and  Section. 

consideration  of  the  manufacturer.     Unless  the  distillation 
is  so  regulated  that  every  twenty-four  hours  produces  a 


WASHERS  OR  AGITATORS. 


83 


certain  amount  of  oil,  no  correct  idea  of  the  profits  of  oil 
» refining  can  be  had ;  and  the  still,  being  most  apt  to  be 


Horizontal  "Washer  and  Tanks.— Longitudinal  Section. 

out  of  order,  should  be  of  the  most  simple  form,  and  admit 
of  cheap  and  easy  repair. 


AIR  AGITATOR, 


WASHERS    OR  AGITATORS. 

These  may  be  vertical  as  on  page  81,  or  horizontal  as  on 
pages  82  and  83. 

The  vertical  washer  is  of  light  boiler  iron,  having  a  con 
cave  bottom  to  assist  the  drawing  off  of  the  tarry  matter 
thrown  down  by  the  reagents. 

A  shaft  with  fans  of  wood  or  iron,  placed  obliquely,  as 
in  a  ship's  screw,  is  turned  by  gearing.  Breaks  of  wood, 
six  inches  wide  and  one  inch  thick,  are  secured  to  the  side. 
These  serve  to  break  the  current  produced  by  the  fans,  and 
make  the  agitation  more  thorough.  The  bottom  should  be 
surrounded  by  a  steam-jacket  to  admit  of  its  being  kept  at 
90°  Fah.  when  in  use. 

The  horizontal  washer  is  a  very  good  one,  but  not  quite 
so  simple  as  the  one  just  described.  It  was  used  by  the 


author  in  connexion  with  a  system  of  tanks  for  treating 
coal  tar  products.     The  pump  conveyed  the  oil  to  be 


AIR  AGITATOR.  85 

treated  to  the  horizontal  chamber,  which  was  lined  with 
lead,  and  had  a  shaft  running  through*  it  with  arms  or 
beaters  of  wood.  The  oil,  after  being  agitated  with  acid, 
was  let  down  into  the  tank  below  to  be  settled,  while  the 
agitator  was  set  to  work  upon  another  charge. 

An  air  agitator,  shown  on  preceding  page,  has  been 
found  to  be  the  most  convenient  and  thorough.  It  c6n- 
sists  of  a  vessel-  of  thin  boiler  iron,  A,  surrounded  at  the 
bottom  and  part  of  the  sides  by  a  steam-jacket,  B.  A  two- 
inch  wrought  iron  pipe,  c,  communicates  with  a  blowing 
fan,  such  as  are  used  for  small  blast  furnaces,  or  with  an 
air-pump.  The  pipe,  c,  enters  a  perforated  iron  vessel.  D, 
or  may  be  left  coiled  with  its  end  open  on  the  bottom  of 
the  agitator.  This  arrangement  leaves  the  interior  of  the 
agitator  clear  of  all  obstructions.  A  steam-pipe  and  valve 
admit  steam  to  the  jacket.  The  drip-cock,  G,  carries  off 
the  condensed  steam.  The  cock,  c,  is  the  outlet  for  the 
oil  after  agitation,  where  a  settling  vessel  is  used,  or  the 
oil  is  discharged  into  another  agitator  as  in  coal  oil  refin 
ing.  (See  drawings,  of  Kefineries.)  The  pipe,  I,  is  the 
inlet  from  the  pump.  The  cock,  H,  is  for  drawing  off  the 
acid  residuum.  The  cut  represents  an  agitator  seven  feet 
in  diameter,  and  six  feet  deep. 

SUPERHEATED  STEAM  APPARATUS. 

Steam  can  be  superheated  for  distilling  purposes  by  any 
mode  which  involves  its  passing  over  hot  surfaces  before 
entering  the  charge  of  oil  in  the  still.  A  bench  of  three 
ordinary  gas  retorts,  connected  with  pipes,  would  form  a 
very  good  superheater. 

In  the  above  diagram  is  an  arrangement  for  superheating 
which  has  been  found  satisfactory.  A  series  of  cast  iron 


86 


SUPERHEATED  STEAM  APPARATUS. 


pipes,  B,  four  feet  in  length,  two  inches  in  diameter,  metal 
two  inches  thick,  slightly  arched,  and  connected  by  return 
bends,  D,  are  placed  in  an  oven,  A.  The  damper,  L,  regu- 


Superheated  Steam  Apparatus. 

lates  the  heat.  The  fire  is  prevented  from  striking  directlv 
upon  the  pipe,  by  fire  tiles  placed  under  them,  with  small 
flues  passing  through  them  between  the  pipes.  The  inlet 
of  steam  is  regulated  by  the  valve,  E.  A  small  globe  and 
drip  cock,  H,  should  be  placed  on  the  boiler  side  of  the 


RETORT  FOR  BITUMINOUS  CLAYS,  ETC. 


87 


valve  to  insure  the  drawing  off  of  any  water  before  letting 
steam  into  the  superheater.  The  pipe  connecting  with  the 
boiler  should  enter  a  drum  on  the  top  of  the  boiler,  so  as 
to  get  the  steam  as  dry  as  possible. 

The  exit  from  the  superheater  is  a  wrought  iron  pipe  of 
the  same  diameter,  carried  into  the  still  at  the  top  and  car 
ried  down  its  side,  and  coiled  once  or  twice  around  its 
bottom.  This  pipe  is  perforated  with  holes  three-sixteenths 
of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  still  may  be  set  in  sand.  A 
pressure  of  forty  pounds  in  the  boiler  is  the  proper  one  to 
work  with.  A  mode  of  working  the  superheater  is  given 
further  on. 

Andrew  McLean,  of  Liverpool,  has  been  very  successful 


END      \  /  ELEVATION; 

Eetort  for  Bituminous  Clays,  Asphaltum,  etc. 


in  introducing  superheated  steam  in  coal  and  petroleum 

7 


RETORT  FOR  BITUMINOUS  CLAYS,  ETC. 

distillation.  His  application  of  superheated  steam  to  the 
distillation  of  bituminous  shales  in  Great  Britain,  is  of 
great  utility. 


SECTION 

Eetort  for  Bituminous  Clays,  Asphaltnm,  etc. 

The  arrangement  on  this  and  the  opposite  page,  may  be 
of  service  to  those  who  wish  to  distil  bituminous  sand  or 
clays  by  superheated  steam. 

The  retort,  A,  is  set  in  sand  or  brickwork.  A  perforated 
pipe,  B,  running  up  one  side  and  down  the  other,  conveys 
the  steam  to  the  charge ;  c,  is  a  gutter  or  channel  formed  to 
receive  the  condensed  water  and  vapors,  and  its  end  con 
tinuation,  D,  prevents  their  return  to  the  retort. 


PRODUCTS  OF  THE   DISTILLATION    OF   WOOD.  89 


CHAPTER   Y. 

Products  of  the  distillation  of  wood,  coals,  asphaltum.  bitumen,  petroleum, 
and  other  substances  capable  of  yielding  oils. 

PRODUCTS  OF  THE    DISTILLATION   OF  WOOD. 

THE  products  of  wood  distilled  in  close  vessels  are  very 
numerous.  The  resinous  woods  give  results  different  from 
those  not  resinous,  and  each  kind  affords  some  peculiar 
products.  During  distillation  all  yield  more  or  less  car 
bonic  acid,  carbonic  oxide,  and  carburetted  hydrogen. 
Charcoal  remains  in  the  retort.  Some  of  the  products  are 
soluble  in  water,  others  are  not.  Of  the  products  soluble 
in  water  and  volatile,  there  are  acetic  acid,  or  pyroligneous 
acid.  This  is  the  most  abundant  liquid.  It  contains  much 
creasote,  and  preserves  meat,  giving  it  at  the  same  time  a 
smoky  taste  and  odor. 

Pyroxylic  spirit. — By  distilling  the  crude  pyroligneous 
acid  a  mixed  liquid  is  obtained,  known  as  pyroxylic  spirit, 
or  hydrated  oxide  of  methyle.  From  this  spirit  Gmelin 
and  Liebig  derived  lignone,  xylite,  xylitic  acid,  naphtha, 
xylitic  oil,  and  resin,  mesetine,  methol,  mesite,  acetone, 
and  other  volatile  liquids  have  been  obtained,  of  which,  up 
to  the  present  time,  there  is  but  an  imperfect  knowledge 
existing. 

PRODUCTS   OILY  AND   VOLATILE. 

Among  these  creasote  is  predominant.  This  is  a  clear 
neutral  oil,  with  an  odor  of  smoke,  and  hot  pungent  taste. 


90  PRODUCTS   OF  THE    DISTILLATION   OF  WOOD. 

It  evaporates  without  residue,  'and  is  turned  to  a  brown 
color  by. being  exposed  to  the  light.  It  is  soluble  in  ether, 
alcohol,  acetic  acid,  ammonia,  and  potash — is  used  as  a 
styptic,  and  considered  as  a  valuable  remedy  for  the  tooth 
ache.  Creasote  has  also  remarkable  antiseptic  properties, 
and  is  employed  in  dyeing  and  tanning.  A  distinction 
between  creasote  and  carbolic  acid  has  not  been  clearly 
made  out. 

Picamar  was  discovered  by  Eeichenbach,  with  creasote 
in  the  heavy  oil  of  tar.  "With  potash,  it  forms  a  crystalline 
compound.  It  is  a  colorless  oil,  having  a  hot,  bitter  taste. 
Its  composition  has  not  been  clearly  described. 

Copnomor. — With  the  creasote  and  picamar  the  above 
chemist  discovered  copnomor,  a  limpid,  colorless  oil,  highly 
refractive,  with  an  aromatic  odor  and  styptic  taste.  Nitric 
acid  converts  it  into  oxalic  acid,  nitro-picric  acid,  and  other 
complex  substances,  of  which  little  is  known. 

Eupion,  another  oily,  or  rather  spirituous  liquid,  dis 
covered  by  Keichenbach  in  the  oil  of  tar,  is  C5  H4.  It 
is  readily  purified  by  distillation,  and  has  a  specific  gravity 
of  0*740.  The  author  obtained  it  from  the  tar  of  candle 
manufactories,  with  a  specific  gravity  of  0*640,  and  a  boil 
ing  point  of  112°.  It  is,  therefore,  among  the  lightest 
liquids  known.  It  resists  the  action  of  the  strongest  sul 
phuric  acid.  With  nitric  acid  it  forms  several  new  combi 
nations  analogous  to  those  of  benzole.  It  is  perfectly 
colorless,  evaporates  rapidly,  and  to  some  persons  it  has  an 
agreeable  odor.  This  oil  does  not  exist  ready  formed  in 
the  tars,  but  is  produced  by  the  action  of  strong  acids  and 
alkalies  upon  the  distillates  of  crude  oils.  In  the  manu 
facture  of  hydro-carbon  oils,  eupion  includes  a  number  of 
the  members  of  the  homologous  compounds  of  carbon  and 
hydrogen.  It  is  now  frequently  sold  as  benzole,  and  em- 


PARAFFIN.  91 

ployed  for  making  what  is  called  the  benzole  or  atmo 
spheric  light,  and  for  removing  oil  stains  from  clothes.  A 
number  of  liquids  have  been  classed  under  the  denomina 
tion  of  eupion ;  they  are  all  hydro-carbons,  and  their 
formula  is  C,  II,  or  C5 II4,  or  some  multiple  of  it. 

Eupion  may  not  only  be  distilled  from  wood,  but  also 
from  other  substances  capable  of  yielding  tars  by  distilla 
tion.  It  burns  with  a  brilliant  white  flame,  free  from  smoke ; 
but  it  is  extremely  inflammable,  and  a  dangerous  liquid  for 
lamps. 

SOLID  PRODUCTS  OBTAINED    FROM    THE    DISTILLATION   OF 

WOOD. 

Paraffin  is  the  name  of  a  white  solid  substance,  or  sil 
very  scales  resembling  wax,  discovered  by  Keichenbach. 
It  is  formed  in  large  quantities  from  the  petroleum  of 
Rangoon,  and  the  author  has  obtained  it  from  the  Ouachita 
coal  of  Arkansas,  at  the  rate  of  143  Ibs.  per  ton.  Coals, 
asphaltums,  bitumens,  petroleums,  peat,  and  other  sub 
stances,  afford  paraffin  from  one  to  five  per  cent,  of  their 
oils.  It  is  most  abundantly  produced  by  the  distillation  of 
wax  with  lime. 

Paraffin  melts  between  110°  and  114°.  Its  specific  gra 
vity  is  0-870,  and  according  to  Lewis  its  formula  is  C^  H21. 
It  is  readily  made  into  candles,  and  in  a  wick  it  burns  with 
a  beautiful,  clear,  white  light;  and  the  candles  are  semi- 
transparent.  It  is  indifferent  to  the  strongest  acids  and 
alkalies.  A  number  of  compounds  of  carbon  and  hydro 
gen  have  been  confounded  with  paraffin,  such  as  methy- 
lene,  ethylene,  butylene,  etc.  It  is  remarkable  that  the 
paraffin  produced  by  the  distillation  of  different  kinds  of 
materials  differs  considerably  on  some  points  of  comparison, 


92  PARAFFIN. 

some  having  a  higher,  and  some  a  lower  melting  point. 
These  differences,  however,  may  arise  in  some  degree  from 
the  amount  of  heat  by  which  they  are  produced,  and  their 
treatment  to  render  them  pure.  The  greatest  obstacle  to 
the  application  of  paraffin  for  candles  is  its  low  melting 
point.  It  may  be  mixed  with  bleached  wax,  which  does 
not  fuse,  in  general,  below  154:°.  The  cup-like  cavity 
around  the  wick  of  a  pure  paraffin  candle  is  apt  to  yield  to 
the  heat,  and  the  melted  material  overflows,  and  bears  with 
it  the  name  of  "  slut.'1'1  Doubtless  there  are  improvements 
to  be  made  in  the  manufacture  "of  this  beautiful  article. 
Paraffin  does  not  exist  in  coal  ready  formed.  It  is  one  of 
the  combinations  resulting  from  the  interchanges  of  the  ele 
ments  of  bituminous  and  other  bodies  during  their  expo 
sure  to  a  high  temperature.  Paraffin  burns  well  in  the 
kerosene  or  common  coal-oil  lamp,  when  dissolved  in 
hydro-carbon  oils ;  but  in  cold  weather  it  hardens,  and 
will  not  then  ascend  the  wick. 

Cedriret  is  a  volatile  solid  which  forms  red  crystals  in  a 
solution  of  sulphate  of  iron.  These  crystals  dissolve  in 
sulphuric  acid,  and  the  red  color  is  changed  to  blue.  The 
blue  tinge  produced  by  reflected  light  of  some  of  the  coal 
oils  in  the  market  owes  its  origin  in  part  to  the  presence  of 
cedriret. 

Pittical. — When  heavy  oil  of  tar  is  neutralized  by  potash, 
and  barytic  water  is  added,  the  solution  is  of  a  deep  blue 
color,  from  the  presence  of  pittical,  which,  when  pure,  is 
like  indigo.  It  color  has  been  fixed  on  cloth,  but  its  manu 
facture  has  not  yet  been  brought  to  perfection. 

Pyroxanthine  is  another  volatile  crystalline  solid,  first 
obtained  by  Scanlan  from  pyroligneous  spirit.  Its  crystals 
are  of  a  fine  yellow  color,  easily  fusible.  Its  composition 
is  represented  to  be  C2i  H9  04. 


PRODUCTS  OF  THE   DISTILLATION   OF   COALS.  93 

The  foregoing  are  the  principal  products  of  the  distil 
lates  of  wood.  Besides  these,  there  are  others  which  are 
constantly  engaging  the  investigations  of  chemists.  They 
are  important,  and  in  time  they  will  probably  be  applied 
to  useful  purposes.  "When  the  different  kinds  of  wood, 
the  different  chemical  changes  produced  by  different  de 
grees  of  heat,  and  the  variable  operations  of  re-agents  are 
considered,  it  is  not  surprising  that  this  division  of  chemical 
science  should  advance  so  slowly,  and  so  little  should  be 
known  of  the  changes  matter  undergoes  by  seemingly 
invisible  agents.  The  identity  of  most  of  the  before-men 
tioned  products,  with  those  resulting  from  the  distillation 
of  coals,  affords  much  additional  evidence  that  coal  and 
bitumen,  like  wood  and  turpentine,  have  had  one  common 
origin. 

PRODUCTS   OF  THE   DISTILLATION    OF    COALS  AT  A  HIGH 


Certain  specific  spirits  and  oils  have  been  obtained  by 
chemists  from  coals  and  other  bituminous  bodies.  These 
spirits  and  oils  have  been  distinguished  one  from  the  other 
by  their  densities,  boiling  points,  and  other  characters,  and 
have  received  different  and  sometimes  very  inappropriate 
names.  From  coal  tar  Peckston  distilled  oil  of  tar  and 
spirits  of  tar.  Laurent,  Reichenbach,  Hoffman,  and  others, 
have  given  the  composition  of  coal  tar.  Wagenman  applied 
himself  to  the  oils  derivable  from  turf,  brown  coal,  and 
bituminous  slate,  from  which  he  obtained  photogen,  solar 
oil,  and  paraffin.  From  the  slate  near  Bielefeld,  En- 
gelbach  distilled  light  oil,  heavy  oil,  butyric  fat,  and 
asphaltic  fat. 

Mansfield  in  his  patent,  registered  in  1847,  describes 


94  COAL  TAB. 

alliole,  benzole,  tuluole,  cumole,  cymole,  and  mortuole, 
products  collected  by  him  from  the  distillation  of  coal  tar. 
Among  the  oily  substances  obtained  by  the  distillation  of 
coal  tar  the  following  have  been  described  :* — 

Benzole       ........  Ci2  He 

Cumene,  or  cumole     .        .       ' .  .  .  Cis  Hi2 

Toluole,  or  toluene     ....  .  .  .  Cu  US 

Naphthalin          .        .'        .  •      .    •  .  ,!  .  C^o  Hg 

Anthracene,  or  paranaphthalin  .  - . ',  •  . .'  •     C30  Hi2 

Chrysene     .        .      '..       ...      ...-  ,  ,     ..  .  Ci2  H4 

Pyrene        .        .       ,.       %,      ..    jt  .  .  .  GIO  H2 
Ampaline. 

ACIDS. 

Carbolic       .        .        .        .        ,       ..         Ci2  H5  0.  H.  0. 
Rosalie. 
Brunolic. 

BASES. 

Ammonia    .         .        ....  .  .         .  N.  HS 

Picoline,  or  odorine     .        .        .  .  .         .  Ci2  £[7  N. 

Aniline        .        .        .        .        .  .  .        .  Ci2  H7  N. 

Leucoline,  or  quinoline        .....  Gig  H7 1ST. 

Parvoline    .        .        .        .        .  .  .,-.  Ci8H13K 

Lutidine      .        .        .        .        .  ..  .,*.      .  C9  H9  N. 

and  others  not  yet  fully  investigated. 

Besides  the  foregoing  compounds,  derived  from  coal  tar, 
phenyle,  pyrrole,  animine,  olanine,  cyanole,  benzidam,  etc., 
and  others  have  been  described.  It  has  been  usual  to  sepa 
rate  the  coal  tar  of  gas  works  into  two  parts,  namely, 
naphtha  and  dead  oil  The  tar  itself  always  contains  much 
finely  divided  carbon,  the  quantity  of  which  is  augmented 
by  a  high  heat.  Both  the  naphtha  and  dead  oil  consist  of 
a  number  of  hydro-carbons.  These  cannot  be  considered 

*  See  Gerhardt,  Chem.  Organ,  vol.  iv.,  p.  426. 


COAL  TAR.  95 

as  certain  compounds,  as  they  are  liable  to  great  variations. 
The  nature  of  the  coal,  and  the  heat  applied,  as  before 
remarked,  have  much  to  do  with  the  quality  of  the  tar, 
cannel  coal  being  always  more  productive  of  spirits  and  oils 
than  common  bituminous  coal.  Besides  these  various  and 
variable  products,  several  of  them,  if  not  all,  have  many 
derivatives,  formed  by  their  combinations  with  other  sub 
stances.  For  instance,  by  the  action  of  chlorine  on  naph- 
thalin,  we  have,  according  to  the  nomenclature  of  Laurent, 
chlonaptase,  chlonapfes^,  chlonapftse,  etc.  By  the  action  of 
bromine,  bronaptase,  bronapfese,  bronapfe,  etc.  The  deri 
vatives  of  aniline  are  represented  as  chloranoline,  dichlo- 
ranoline,  trichloranoline,  bromanaline,  dibromanaline,  tri- 
bomanaline,  nitrodibromanaline,  etc.,  and  thus  pages  might 
be  filled  with  the  names  of  these  uncertain  combinations,  a 
systematic  arrangement  of  which  has  not  been  completed. 
These  discoveries  mark  the  progress  of  chemical  inquiry, 
although  they  have  not,  so  far,  added  much  to  manufactur 
ing  or  commercial  interests. 

When  coal  tar,  and  especially  that  obtained  from  cannel 
coal,  is  submitted  to  heat  in  a  still  connected  with  a  proper 
condensing  apparatus,  it  is  resolved  into  water,  benzole, 
naphtha,  and  various  heavy  hydro-carbonaceous  oils — char 
coal  remaining  in  the  still  if  the  distillation  has  been  carried 
on  to  dryness.  In  the  meantime  decomposition  has  taken 
place,  and  products  present  themselves  that  did  not  exist 
in  the  undistilled  material.  Of  these  products  a  part  is 
volatile,  and  another  and  the  largest  part  is  dense  and  not 
volatile.  The  former  may  be  advantageously  distilled  over 
by  the  aid  of  steam  at  the  temperature  of  212°,  the  latter 
by  superheated  steam.  :  Manufactories  have  been  esta 
blished  where  the  coal  tar  is  distilled  down  to  a  thick 
pitch,  which  is  applied  for  roofing  buildings ;  the  dense  oils 


96  COAL  TAR  BENZOLE. 

are  employed  for  fuel  in  glass  works ;  the  benzole  and 
naphtha,  after  being  rectified,  are  sold  for  dissolving  gutta 
percha  and  india  rubber,  for  varnish,  and  for  producing  the 
benzole  light.  The  heavy  oils  abound  in  naphthalin, 
which  has  not  yet  been  extensively  applied  to  any  useful 
purpose.  The  last  of  the  distillate  frequently  contains 
paraffin  oil  and  paraffin. 

Among  the  valuable  derivatives  of  coal  tar  is  picric  acid, 
Welter's  bitter,  carbozotic  acid,  or  nitro-phenesic  acid  of 
some  chemists.  This  acid  was  discovered  by  M.  Guinon, 
of  Lyons,  and  its  composition  is  stated  to  be  da  H3 1ST.  O4 
02.  This  substance  is  obtained  by  acting  upon  coal  tar,  or 
coal  tar  naphtha,  with  strong  nitric  acid.  It  produces  a 
beautiful  yellow  color,  which  is  capable  of  being  fixed  on 
silks  and  woollen  cloth.  It  is  used  in  France  and  England 
as  a  dye.  The  yellow  stain  communicated  to  the  skin  by 
nitric  acid,  and  which  cannot  be  removed  by  washing, 
arises  from  the  production  of  picric  acid.  Aniline  also  is 
converted  into  a  violet-colored  powder,  which  has  been  sold 
for  $250  per  lb.,  on  account  of  the  beautiful  red  and  purple 
dyes  it  communicates  to  silks.  Its  colors  are  permanent, 
and  exceed  in  delicacy  any  before  discovered. 

Benzole  (da  H6).  Bicarburet  of  hydrogen  (Faraday).  Ben 
zine  (Mitscherlich). — This  oil,  so  called,  although  it  is  rather 
a  spirit,  was  discovered  \>y  Faraday,  and  by  him  condensed 
from  oil  gas.  Mitscherlich  obtained  it  by  distilling  ben- 
zoic  acid  with  hydrate  of  lime,  and  it  may  be  procured  by 
passing  the  vapor  of  benzoic  acid  through  a  red  hot  tube. 
It  exists  in  considerable  quantities  in  coal  tar  naphtha, 
from  which  it  may  be  separated  by  fractional  distillation. 
It  is  readily  purified,  by  first  washing  it  with  sulphuric 
acid,  then  with  a  solution  of  caustic  potash,  or  soda,  and 
final  distillation  over  lime.  Its  specific  gravity  is  0*850,  of 


COAL  TAR  BENZOLE.  97 

its  vapor  2'742,  and  it  boils  at  186°.  Like  other  liquids 
distilled  from  coal  tar,  it  is  scarcely  a  distinct  and  separate 
product ;  but  forms  a  member  of  a  series  to  be  noticed 
hereafter.  Benzole  holds  a  medium  position  between  alli- 
ole,  so  called,  and  naphtha.  With  chlorine  it  forms  chlo- 
robenzole  C12  H6  C16  Similar  compounds  are  also  formed 
with  bromine,  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids.  It  is  itself  a 
starting  point  or  type  of  a  series  of  homologous  compounds, 
the  common  difference  at  each  step  being  C2  H2  These 
compounds  all  admit  of  their  hydrogen  being  replaced  by 
one,  two,  or  three  equivalents  of  chlorine,  bromine,  nitric 
acid,  and  amide  ;  finally  they  give  rise  to  bases,  of  which 
aniline  or  phenylamine  is  the  type.  * 

It  will  be  readily  perceived  how  benzole  differs  from 
eupion.  In  both,  the  multiple,  or  increasing  number  of 
the  hydrogen,  is  two ;  but  as  the  benzole  series  starts  with 
two  equivalents  of  carbon  to  one  of  hydrogen  and  eupion, 
with  one  equivalent  less  of  carbon  than  of  hydrogen,  the 
former  series  contains  the  most  carbon  throughout.  In 
making  the  benzole,  or  atmospheric  light, f  the  benzole 
requires  to  be  diluted  with  alcohol,  to  prevent  the  flame 
from  smoking.  Again,  eupion  alone  is  found  to  be  defi 
cient  in  carbon  for  that  purpose.  A  mixture  may  be  made 
of  the  two  liquids,  in  which  the  quantities  of  carbon  and 

*  Gregory,  Outlities  of  Organic  Chemistry.    London,  1852.    3d  ed.  p.  128. 

\  The  benzole,  or  atmospheric  light,  is  made  by  passing  a  current  of  ah? 
through  benzole,  or  other  volatile  liquid  hydrocarbon.  The  air,  by  taking 
up  a  quantity  of  the  liquid,  burns  freely,  and  is  distributed  in  the  manner  of 
coal  gas.  Numerous  machines  have-  been  invented  for  forcing  a  current  of 
air  through  the  fluid,  and  some  of  them  are  very  efficient.  But  below  a  cer 
tain  temperature  the  air  will  not  convey  vapor  sufficient  to  afford  a  good 
light.  In  cold  weather,  also,  the  vapor  of  the  benzole  condenses  in  the 
pipes,  and  the  liquid  itself  requires  the  application  of  heat.  These  difficulties 
have  so  far  beea  insurmountable- 


yo  NA.PHTHALIN. 

hydrogen  may  be  so  adjusted  that  the  light  will  be  bril 
liant  and  without  smoke. 

By  adding  benzole  gradually  to  strong  nitric  acid,  with 
the  aid  of  a  gentle  heat,  a  compound  is  formed  which  dis 
solves  in  the.  acid,  and,  on  cooling,  collects  on  the  sur 
face.  On  diluting  the  mixture  with  water,  nitro-benzole 
is  precipitated  in  the  form  of  a  yellow  oil.  This  oil  has  a 
sweet  taste,  and  the  odor  of  the  oil  of  bitter  almonds.  It 
is  used  in  perfumery,  and  in  the  bakery.  Benzole  is 
employed  for  many  useful  purposes.  It  dissolves  the  gums, 
resins,  and  all  fatty  substances.  It  removes  from  cloth 
and  silks  spots  of  tar,  grease,  turpentine,  etc.,  and  for  those 
purposes  it  has  been  imported  from  France  in  small  bottles, 
which  are  sold  at  high  prices.  Its  rapid  evaporation  ren 
ders  it  also  a  substitute  for  alcohol  and  turpentine  in  the 
preparation  of  paints  and  varnishes. 

Cumole  (C18  H12),  when  treated  like  benzole,  its  ho- 
mologues  yield  a  crystalline  solid,  which  is  fusible  and 
volatile. 

Toluole  (C14  H8)  is  another  oil,  analogous  to  and  homo 
logous  with  benzole.  It  boils  at  226°,  and  has  a  specific 
gravity  of  0*870.  When  treated  with  nitric  acid  it  yields 
two  compounds,  nitrotoluole  and  dinitrotoluole.  Deville 
obtained  a  series  of  compounds  from  toluole,  in  which  the 
hydrogen  was  replaced  by  chlorine. 

Naphthalin. — This  interesting  and  remarkable  hydro 
carbon  exists  in  almost  all  kinds  of  tar.  In  coal  tar  it  is 
very  abundant.  Jt  does  not  exist  ready-formed  in  coal, 
but  results  from  a  high  heat  in  its  distillation,  and  an  inter 
change  of  elements  during  the  decomposition  of  the  bitu 
minous  mineral.  Creasote,  or  carbolic  acid,  is  its  usual 
companion,  and  seems  to  add  to  its  quantity.  By  the 
repeated  distillations  of  coal  tar,  naphthalin  will  crystallize 


NAPHTHALIN.  99 

at  the  bottom  of  the  receiving  vessel,  and  maybe  separated 
from  the  oils  that  accompany  it  by  simple  draining  and 
pressure.  It  is  rendered  pure  by  agitation  first  with  sul 
phuric  acid,  then  with  a  strong  solution  of  caustic  soda  or 
potash,  and  final  distillation  and  crystallization.  When 
pure,  naphthalin  is  colorless,  and  forms  beautiful  flat  and 
needle-shaped  crystals  ;  it  evaporates  rapidly,  like  camphor, 
and  gives  out  a  peculiar  odor,  unpleasant  to  some  persons, 
but  agreeable  to  others.  Its  taste  is  hot  and  pungent,  and 
it  corrodes  the  skin.  A  soap  made  from  it  was  considered 
beneficial  to  the  complexion.  It  distils  with,  water,  and, 
like  camphor,  sublimes  and  crystallizes  against  the  sides 
of  the  bottle  in  which  it  is  contained,  and  opposite  the 
light. 

Chlorine  and  bromine  combine  with  naphthalin,  and  lay 
the  foundation  of  a  great  number  of  compounds,  which 
are  formed  by  the  substitution  of  the  chlorine  and  bromine 
for  hydrogen.  The  labors  of  Laurent  have  been  success 
fully  applied  to  this  inquiry,  by  which  a  new  field  of 
research  has  been  opened,  and  the  doctrine  of  substitution 
more  clearly  established.  Sulphuric  acid  exerts  itself  upon 
naphthalin,  forming  hyposulphonaphthalic,  hyposulphonaph- 
thic  acids,  etc.  Thus,  also,  with  nitric  acid ;  but  the  num 
ber  of  these  combinations,  and  the  great  length  of  their 
names,  render  full  descriptions  of  them  unnecessary  in  a 
work  intended  to  be  practical.  Naphthalin  is  worthy  of  a 
trial  in  medicine,  and  may  hereafter  prove  itself  to  be 
valuable  in  the  arts.  In  its  unpurified  state  it  adds  to  the 
offensive  odor  of  the  oils  distilled  from  coals,  and  increases 
the  cost  of  their  treatment. 

Paraffin  has  been  already  described  under  the  solid 
products  obtained  from  the  distillation  of  wood.  Its  yield 
from  the  coal  tar  of  cannel  coals  is  seldom  more  than  one- 


100  CARBOLIC    ACID. 

fourth  per  cent,  of  the  tar,  and  it  succeeds  the  naphthalin 
in  the  distillation. 

Anthracene,  or  paranarpliihalin  (C30  H12),  is  polymeric 
with  naphthalin,  and  is  obtained  from  the  heavy  distillates 
of  coal  tar.  It  melts  at  350°,  distils  at  398°,  and  crystal 
lizes  in  thin,  foliated  plates.  Like  naphthalin,  it  is  acted 
upon  by  nitric  acid,  which  produces  a  series  of  compounds, 
oxygen  taking  the  place  of  hydrogen.  Thus  we  have 
hyponitrate  of  ancetlwacenase,  bi-hyponitrate  of  anihrace- 
nese,  etc. 

Chrysene  also  is  found  to  exist  in  the  last  divisions  of  the 
distillates  of  coal  tar.  It  is  a  crystalline  solid,  of  a  yellow 
color,  melting  at  455°,  and  not  soluble  in  many  liquids. 

Pyrene  (C10  H2)  occurs  with  cbrysene.  It  is  acted  upon 
by  nitric  acid,  which  produces  a  number  of  derivatives. 
Chemistry  is  mainly  indebted  to  Laurent  for  the  discovery 
and  description  of  many  of  these  combinations. 

VOLATILE   BASES  IN  COAL  TAR. 

Carbolic  acid. — This  is  a  colorless  oil,  which,  in  its  general 
character,  resembles  creasote ;  and  by  some  it  is  believed 
to  be  only  a  modification  of  that  compound.  It  also  occurs 
in  the  heavy  distillates  of  coal  tar,  and  boils  at  380°.  Like 
creasote,  it  is  very  poisonous,  and  may  be  used  as  a  remedy 
for  toothache.  If  a  piece  of  pine-wood  be  dipped  in  car 
bolic  acid,  and  then  in  nitric  acid,  it  will  become  blue, 
which  finally  changes  into  brown.  This  acid  has  an  offen 
sive  odor,  which  it  imparts  to  coal  oils,  and  thereby  in 
creases  the  cost  of  their  purification. 

Picoline  (C12  H7)  is  a  volatile,  oily  base,  discovered  in  coal 
tar  by  Dr.  Anderson.  It  boils  at  272°,  does  not  discolor 
pine- wood,  and  is  probably  the  odorine  of  Unverdorben. 


ANILINE   FROM  COAL   TAR.  101 

Aniline  has  been  termed  crystalline,  cyanol,  lenzidam, 
phenylamine,  phenamine,  phenamide,  etc.  This  base  occurs 
among  the  products  distilled  from  coals,  and  those  pro 
duced  by  the  destructive  distillation  of  animal  matter.  It 
is  also  described  as  having  been  obtained  from  indigo. 
The  author  found  aniline  an  abundant  product  in  the  tar 
of  stearine  manufactories,  and  the  oils  distilled  from  shales, 
which  contain  the  remains  of  fishes  and  Crustacea.  Ani 
line  is  a  highly  refractive,  colorless  oil,  of  specific  gravity 
1-020.  When  pure,  it  has  a  hot,  pungent  taste,  and  plea 
sant  smell.  It  does  not  act  on  turmeric,  but  turns  purple 
to  green.  With  bleaching  powder,  it  produces  a  purple 
color.  This  color  is  frequently  seen  in  the  coal  oils  of  the 
market. 

Leucoline,  or  quinoline. — This  base  is  found  to  exist 
among  the  last  and  least  volatile  products  of  coal  tar. 
It  boils  at  460°,  has  a  disagreeable  smell,  and  neutralizes 
acids. 

Lutidine  is  another  of  these  bases,  the  nature  of  which 
has  been  but  imperfectly  made  out. 

COAL  TAR  NAPHTHA,    BENZOLE   (OR    BENZINE),    NITRO- 
BENZOLE,   ANILINE,   AND  ANILINE  DYES. 

Coal  tar  from  gas  works  distilled  over  fire  with  one-fifth 
its  weight  of  water  produces  naphtha,  which  is  that  portion 
of  the  distillate  coming  over  with  the  water.  Distilled  by 
steam  passed  through  the  charge,  coal  tar  yields  a  larger 
quantity  of  naphtha,  but  of  poor  quality  for  aniline  pur 
poses. 

The  crude  naphtha  is  thoroughly  agitated  with  three  per 
cent.,  or  three  gallons  to  the  hundred,  of  sulphuric  acid  at 
66°,  and  permitted  to  settle  for  three  hours.  The  naphtha 


102  EECTIFIED  NAPHTHA. 

is  then  drawn  off  and  again  washed  with  five  per  cent,  of 
sulphuric  acid,  and  settled  for  five  hours.  The  naphtha  is 
then  drawn  off  and  agitated  with  water  in  large  quantity, 
to  remove  as  much  of  the  acid  as  possible.  The  water  is 
drawn  off.  The  naphtha  is  then  agitated  with  ten  per  cent, 
of  strong  solution  of  soda-ash,  together  with  three  per  cent, 
of  milk  of  lime.  Draw  off  the  naphtha  as  before.  Pump 
into  an  iron  still  and  pass  steam  through  the  charge,  col 
lecting  all  the  naphtha  that  comes  over  with  the  water. 
The  naphtha  should  then  be  run  into  a  tank  under  ground, 
and  left  for  twelve  hours  closely  excluded  from  the  light, 
until  the  water,  mechanically  combined  with  the  naphtha, 
has  had  time  to  separate,  which  usually  takes  twelve  hours. 
The  article  is  now  rectified  naphtha,  and  should  stand  the 
sunlight  without  change. 

From  this  rectified  naphtha  benzole  is  obtained  by  dis 
tillation,  in  a  still  so  constructed  as  to  prevent  the  passing 
over  of  all  fluids  which  require  a  heat  greater  than  212° 
Fah.  to  volatilize  them.  This  can  usually  be  managed  by 
surrounding  the  still  head  with  water.  As  this  boils  at 
212°,  it  will  keep  the  head  at  about  that  temperature  and 
serve  to  show  the  degree  of  heat  at  that  point. 

Pump  the  rectified  naphtha  into  the  above  still  and  dis 
til  over  fire.  The  vapors  and  oils  go  over  as  follows : 

1st.  Alliole  ^ 

2d.    Benzole  I  These  distil  over  at  212°. 

3d.    Toluole  ) 

4th.  Cumole  )  These  will  not  pass  over  unless  the 

5th.  Cymole  )      temperature  is  above  212°. 

The  alliole  and  toluole  may  be  separated,  in  a  great 
measure,  from  the  benzole  by  another  distillation,  in  which 
the  first  and  last  portions  of  the  distillate  are  rejected  and 


NITROBENZOLE.  103 

the  middle  portion  taken.  This  middle  portion  is  ordinary 
commercial  coal  tar  benzole.  If  required  still  purer,  it 
must  be  treated  with  one  half  pound  sulphuric  acid  to  each 
gallon  of  the  benzole,  and  then  be,  after  settling,  well 
washed  with  water.  Then  treat  it  with  a  solution  of  one 
ounce  nitrate  of  soda  to  the  gallon,  and  wash  clean  with 
water. 

Pure  benzole  boils  at  176°  Fah.,  and  is  entirely  vola 
tilized  at  212°  Fah. 

NITROBENZOLE. 

The  formation  of  this  article  depending  upon  the  action 
of  nitric  acid  upon  benzole,  various  modes  have  been  em 
ployed  to  obtain  it. 

It  can  be  prepared  by  adding  slowly  and  carefully  fum 
ing  nitric  acid  to  benzole,  assisting  the  reaction  by  a  mode 
rate  heat.  This  operation  can  be  made  in  a  glass  vessel. 
When  the  nitric  acid  will  dissolve  no  more  benzole, 
which  is  known  by  the  ceasing  of  effervescence,  the  mix 
ture  is  cooled  by  being  placed  in  a  water  bath,  when  the 
nitrobenzole  separates  as  an  oily  liquid.  This  is  washed 
with  water,  and  afterwards  with  a  solution  of  carbonate  of 
soda,  and  can  be  purified  by  distillation.  It  is  a  yellowish 
fluid,  getting  deeper  color  by  exposure  to  the  air,  and  has 
the  odor  of  bitter  almonds.  Its  specific  gravity  is  1'OSO. 
It  boils  at  213°,  and  crystallizes  in  needles  at  a  low  tem 
perature.  It  is  also  prepared  by  permitting  a  small  stream 
of  the  benzole  and  nitric  acid  to  pass  through  a  long  worm 
well  cooled,  the  nitrobenzole  being  collected  at  the  lower 
end  of  the  worm. 

ANILINE. 

One  of  the  bo3t  and  cheapest  modes  of  obtaining  aniline 

8 


104  ANILINE. 

from  nitrobenzole  is  that  of  M.  Bechamp.  A  mixture  of 
iron  filings  two  parts  and  acetic  acid  one  part,  with  'about 
an  equal  volume  of  nitrobenzole,  is  distilled,  the  reaction 
being  assisted  by  a  gentle  heat  whenever  the  effervescence 
ceases.  Aniline  and  water  are  found  in  the  receiver,  the 
aniline  being  separated  from  the  water  by  the  addition  of 
a  very  little  ether,  which,  dissolving  in  the  aniline,  causes 
it  to  rise  to  the  surface,  when  it  is  easily  decanted. 

A  very  spacious  glass  or  earthen  retort  must  be  employed 
as  the  mass  swells  up  violently,  and  it  must  on  the  small 
scale  be  connected  with  the  receiver  by  a  Liebig's  conden 
ser,  and  on  the  large  by  an  ordinary  worm  and  cooling  tub, 
which  must  be  well  supplied  with  water. 

Aniline  is  also  prepared  from  an  alcoholic  solution  of 
nitrobenzole,  which,  after  saturation  with  ammonia,  is 
heated  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen  until  a  precipitate  of 
sulphur  takes  place.  The  liquor  is  then  removed  and 
repeatedly  saturated  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen  until  no 
more  sulphur  separates,  assisting  the  operation  by  occa 
sionally  heating  and  distilling  the  liquor ;  an  excess  of 
acid  is  then  added,  and  the  liquid  filtered.  The  alcohol 
and  unsettled  nitrobenzole  are  removed  by  boiling,  and  the 
residuum  is  distilled  with  caustic  potassa  in  excess.  The 
aniline  in  the  receiver  may  be  purified  by  forming  it  into 
oxalate  of  aniline,  crystallizing  the  salt  from  alcohol,  and 
distillation  as  before  with  caustic  potassa. 

Pure  aniline  is  a  colorless  liquid,  strongly  aromatic,  and 
burning  to  the  taste.  It  is  very  soluble  in  alcohol  or  ether, 
and  slightly  so  in  water.  It  becomes  yellow  on  exposure 
to  the  air,  and  distils  at  200°.  It  cannot  be  frozen. 

Aniline  is  prepared  also  from  the  heavier  oils  of  coal  tar 
by  agitating  them  for  some  time  with  hydrochloric  acid  in 
excess  in  a  glass  globe  on  a  small  scale,  ,or  on  the  large 


ANILINE  DYES.  105 

scale  in  a  suitable  vessel  of  lead  or  enamelled  iron.  The 
clear  portion  of  the  liquid  containing  the  hydrochlorates  of 
the  bases  present  is  evaporated  over  an  open  fire  until  acid 
fumes  begin  to  rise,  when  it  is  decanted  and  filtered.  The 
clear  filtrate  is  then  mixed  with  milk  of  lime  or  with  pot 
ash  in  excess,  by  which  the  bases,  chiefly  "  aniline  "  and 
"chinoline,"  are  set  free  under  the  form  of  a  brownish  oil. 
The  whole  mixture  is  then  distilled,  the  portion  passing 
over  at  360°  Fah.,  being  collected  separately.  This  is 
crude  aniline,  and  is  purified  by  re-distillation  and  re-col 
lection  at  the  same  temperature,  and  by  fresh  treatment 
with  hydrochloric  acid,  and  careful'  distillation  with  excess 
of  potash  and  milk  of  lime  as  before. 

ANILINE   DYES. 

The  details  of  the  various  processes  by  which  aniline  is 
made  to  perform  a  useful  part  in  dyeing  would  be  too 
voluminous  for  this  work.  The  following  extracts  from 
the  patents  of  Georges  de  Laire  and  Charles  Girard  will 
serve  to  give  an  idea  of  the  manipulation  for  aniline  red. 
This  patent  bears  date  November  22d,  1860  : 

"  By  our  new  process  we  put  into  a  distilling  apparatus 
twelve  parts  arsenic  acid  and  twelve  parts  water,  and  the 
arsenic  acid  having  become  completely  hydrated,  we  add 
ten  parts  kyanol  (the  'aniline' of  French  chemists).  The 
whole  is  then  agitated  or  shaken,  so  as  to  produce  a  tho 
rough  mixture,  forming  a  homogeneous,  clammy,  or  nearly 
solid  mass.  This  mass  is  heated  at  a  low  fire,  so  as  to  gra 
dually  raise  its  temperature,  when  the  liquefaction  takes 
place.  By  this  modus  operandi  water,  and  only  a  small 
quantity  of  kyanol,  are  evaporated,  if  the  operation  is  con 
ducted  with  proper  care.  At  a  temperature  of  248°  Fah., 


106  ANILINE   DYES. 

a  great  quantity  of  the  kyanol  or  aniline  is  already  con 
verted  into  coloring  matter,  and  care  should  be  taken  to 
keep  the  temperature  at  that  point  for  some  time,  after 
which  it  is  further  raised ;  but  in  no  instance  above  320° 
Fah.  We  thus  obtain  a  perfectly  homogeneous  and  fluid 
mass  above  212°  Fah.  This  operation  lasts  from  four  to 
five  hours.  When  cooled,  the  mass  solidifies  and  becomes 
a  hard,  brittle  matter,  of  a  coppery  hue,  similar  to  Floren 
tine  bronze.  This  matter  is  highly  soluble  in  water  and 
other  solvents,  such  as  alcohol,  and  imparts  to  them  a  fine 
pure  red  tint,  having  no  admixture  of  violet,  the  intensity 
of  this  coloring  matter  being  so  great  that  after  having 
been  boiled  and  concentrated  it  appears  altogether 
black. 

"  This  coloring  matter  may,  without  inconvenience,  be 
directly  applied  to  dyeing  or  otherwise  coloring  fabrics 
and  other  substances,  the  substance  thus  colored  not  re 
taining  the  slightest  trace  of  arsenic.  The  arsenic  may  also 
be  eliminated  in  an  easy  way  by  either  of  the  following 
processes : — First  process.  The  mass  is  pulverized  and 
digested  with  either  chlorhydric  (hydro-chloric)  or  sulphu 
ric  acid,  diluted  with  water.  The  clear  solution  thus  ob 
tained  is  then  saturated  with  a  slight  excess  of  soda  or 
carbonate  of  soda ;  thus  the  coloring  matter  precipitates, 
while  the  arsenic  is  dissolved  in  the  alkali.  The  coloring 
matter  is  next  washed  once  or  twice  in  cold  water,  when 
it  may  be  filtered  or  decanted. 

"  Second  process.  The  coloring  matter,  after  having 
been  dissolved  in  water,  is  digested  with  a  quantity  of  lime 
corresponding  with  the  portion  of  arsenical  compounds 
contained  in  it,  the  lime  being  slightly  in  excess.  The 
coloring  matter  is  then  precipitated,  as  well  as  the  arsenical 
compounds,  which  combine  into  insoluble  calcareous  salts. 


ANILINE   DYES.  107 

The  precipitates  both,  and  the  solutions,  are  then  (without 
being  separated)  acted  upon  by  either  of  the  carbonic,  tar- 
taric,  or  acetic  acids,  which  dissolve  the  coloring  matter, 
the  whole  of  the  arsenic  remaining  insoluble." 

Messrs,  de  Laire  and  Girard  also  obtain  a  violet  color 
ing  matter,  and  also  a  combination  of  blue  and  other  color 
ing  matter,  by  merely  changing  the  proportion  of  the  arse 
nic  used.  By  acting  upon  ten  parts  of  aniline,  or  any  salt 
containing  ten  parts  of  aniline,  with  eighteen,  twenty,  and 
twenty-four  parts  of  arsenic  acid,  they  obtain  a  more  or 
less  violet,  tending  towards  the  pure  blue. 

Hofmann  procured  aniline  red  by  the  action  of  bichlo 
ride  of  carbon  on  aniline.  M.  Verguin  prepared  the  color 
by  tetra-chloride  of  tin.  MM.  Renard  Brothers  in  France, 
and  Messrs.  Sinjpson,  Maule,  and  Nicholson  in  England, 
manufacture  the  various  tints  which,  under  the  name  of 
Fuchsine,  Magenta,  Solferino,  Mauve,  and  many  others, 
are  now  so  well  known  to  the  world. 

Aniline  green  was  produced  by  the  action  of  aldehyde 
or  wood  spirit,  upon  the  aniline  red  by  M.  Eusebe.  It 
may  be  prepared  as  follows : — 150  grammes  of  sulphate  of 
rozaniline  are  dissolved  in  450  grammes  of  cold,  diluted 
sulphuric  acid  (three  parts  of  acid  to  one  of  water).  When 
the  solution  is  complete,  225  grammes  of  aldehyde  are 
added,  the  mixture  being  stirred.  The  whole  is  now  heated 
in  a  water  bath.  From  time  to  time  a  drop  of  the  mixture 
is  taken  up  with  a  stirring-rod,  and  dropped  into  slightly 
acidulated  water,  and  as  soon  as  a  deep  green  solution  is 
obtained  the  reaction  is  stopped.  The  mixture  is  now 
poured  into  thirty  litres  of  boiling  water,  and  to  this  solu 
tion  are  gradually  added  450  grammes  of  hyposulphite  of 
soda,  dissolved  in  the  smallest  possible  quantity  of  water. 
The  whole  is  now  boiled  for  some  minutes.  All  the  green 


108  ANILINE  DYES. 

remains  in  the  solution,  which  may  be  used  to  dye 
silk* 

Aniline  yellow  is  produced  by  the  action  of  hydrated 
antimonic  or  a  stannic  acid  upon  aniline. 

Aniline  has  been  studied  by  Runge,  Zinin,  Futzsche,  Hof- 
mann,  Muspratt,  Laurent,  Gerhardt,  and  others.  Before  it 
had  become  an  article  of  general  use  and  its  manufacture 
was  more  of  a  monopoly  than  at  present,  the  following  table 
by  MM.  Laurent  and  Casthelaz  was  an  evidence  of  what 
chemistry  had  done  with  coal.f 

Fr.  Cent.  (  Per  Kilogramme 

1.  Coal  .        .        .        .        0  04  (    —  2  Ibs.  3£  oz. 

2.  Tar    .         .         .        .        4  10                    " 

3.  Heavy  oil  ...        0  20                    " 

4.  Light  oil     ...        1  25                   " 

5.  Benzine      ...        2  50                    " 

6.  Rough  nitro-benzine  .7  "                     " 

7.  Rectified  nitro-benzine     12  "                     " 

8.  Ordinary  aniline         .45  "                      " 

9.  Yiolet  &  carmine  aniline  75  " 
10.  Pure  aniline  violet  in 

Powder          .         .       3  to  4000  " 

Thus,  with  coal  carried  to  its  tenth  power,  the  price  of 
gold  was  reached. 

The  present  price  of  aniline  in  powder  varies  from  $7.50 
to  $8.00,  and  $10.00  per  pound.  England,  France,  and 
Germany  supply  the  American  market  for  the  greater 
part.  A  commercial  list  of  aniline  dyes  from  the  house  of 
Messrs.  Toepke  &  Leidloff,  Magdeburg,  Germany,  is  ap 
pended  : 

*  Chemical  News,  London,  1860.     Vol.  ii.,  p.  77. 
f  Chemical  News,  vol.  ix.,  p.  217.     1864. 


PRODUCTS  OF  THE   DISTILLATION  OF  COALS.        109 

Rubin  I.  [Reddish  Red.]  (  Pure  Crystals,  dissolving  without 
<      alcohol  in  hot  water,  by  boil- 
Rubin  II.  [Bluish  R^d.]    (      ing  five  minutes. 
Lilac.     [Shade  between  Rubin  and  Violet  I.] 
New  Violet  I.     [Purple  of  a  very  Reddish  shade.] 
New  Violet  II.     [Purple  of  a  somewhat  deeper  shade  of 

Blue.] 

New  Violet  III.     [Purple  of  a  still  deeper  shade  of  Blue.] 
Parme.     [Purple  of  a  very  deep  shade  of  Blue.] 
Aniline  Blue  I.     [Reddish  Blue.] 
Aniline  Blue  IT.     [Greenish  or  Night  Blue.] 
Orange  of  Aniline. 
Gresn  of  Aniline,  in  Crystals. 
Red- Brown  of  Aniline. 
Salt  of  Aniline.     For  Cotton  Goods. 
Fuchsine.     Reddish  and  Bluish  Red. 


PRODUCTS  OF  THE  DISTILLATION  OF  COALS  AT  A  HEAT  OF 
700°   TO   800°   FAH. 

The  oily  products  distilled  from  coals  at  a  high  heat,  or 
those  produced  in  coal  gas  manufactories,  have  been  called 
tars.  However  incorrect  this  appellation  may  seem  to  the 
chemist,  it  will  serve  to  distinguish  those  coal  tars  from 
the  products  distilled  from  bituminous  substances  at  heats 
just  sufficient  to  expel  all  the  volatile  matter  they  are 
capable  of  affording.  These  are  oils.  The  same  descrip 
tion  of  coals,  distilled  at  the  same  temperature,  and  by  the 
same  mode,  will  always  yield  the  same  results.  The  prin 
cipal  products  of  the  decomposition  of  coals  at  a  gas- 
producing  heat,  have  been  already  noticed ;  but  in  order 
to  obtain  the  greatest  amount  of  commercial  oils,  the  heat 
applied  to  the  distilling  vessel  should  not  exceed  800°  Fah., 
while  for  the  production  of  illuminating  gas  a  temperature 
of  1000°  to  1200°  will  be  required.  Nevertheless,  it  should 
ever  be  remembered,  that  to  make  the  greatest  quantity 


110        PEODUCTS  OF  THE  DISTILLATION   OF  COALS. 

and  the  purest  oils,  different  coals  require  different  beats, 
some  of  them  yielding  up  their  oily  vapors  more  readily 
than  others.  Therefore,  if  the  same  coals  which  produce 
the  before-mentioned  compounds  of  carbon  and  hydrogen 
contained  in  coal  tar,  be  dry-distilled  at  a  heat  not  exceed 
ing  750°  or  800°,  the  products  will  be  different  in  quality 
and  quantity.  Instead  of  benzole,  there  will  be  eupion ; 
naphthalin  will  not  be  formed,  and  if  formed,  the  quan 
tity  will  be  small ;  the  quantity  of  paraffin  will  be  greatly 
increased,  and  the  amount  of  creasote  or  carbolic  acid 
reduced  ;  so  that  the  purification  is  less  expensive.  There 
will  be,  also,  a  great  change  in  the  quality  of  the  oils. 
Instead  of  coal  tar  naphtha,  which  cannot  be  burnt  in  com 
mon  lamps  without  smoke,  on  account  of  its  being  sur 
charged  with  carbon,  there  will  be  a  large  amount  of  oils, 
with  fewer  equivalents  of  carbon,  and  admirably  adapted 
for  illumination,  and  also  denser  oils  for  lubrication.  The 
following  are  the  results  of  one  ton  Newcastle  cannel  coal, 
distilled  for  gas  and  for  oils  : 

DISTILLED    FOR   GAS.  DISTILLED    FOR   OILS. 

Products.  Products. 

Coal  gas,  .  .  7-450  cub.  ft.  Gas,  .  .  .  1'400  cub.  ft. 
Coal  tar,  .  .  18$  gals.  Crude  oil,  .  .  68  gals. 

Coke,  .        .        .      1,200  Ibs.          Coke,   .        .        .      1,280  Ibs. 

Products  of  the  Coal  Tar.  Products  of  the  Crude  Oil. 

Benzole,       ...       3  pints.     Eupion,       .        .        .2  gals. 
Coal  tar  naphtha,          .       3  gals.       Lamp  oil,    .        .        .  22'5    " 
Heavy  oil,  naphthalin,  etc.  9    "          Heavy  oil  and  paraffin,  24       " 

Total,     .        .        12fgaJs.  Total,      .        .     48  -5  gals. 

The  product  set  down  above  as  lamp  oil  consists  of  seve 
ral  oils  combined,  which  will  be  noted  hereafter. 


PRODUCTS  OF  THE  DISTILLATION  OF  BITUMEN.      Ill 

PRODUCTS   OF  THE  DISTILLATES   OF  ASPHALTUM,    BITUMEN, 
PETROLEUM,    ETC. 

The  asphaltum  of  New  Brunswick,  now  called  Albert 
coal,  is  one  of  the  richest  materials  ever  discovered  for  the 
manufacture  of  oils.  Seventy  per  cent,  of  the  first  distil 
late,  after  purification,  may  be  brought  up  to  a  specific 
gravity  of  0'820,  and  burned  in  the  ordinary  coal-oil 
lamp.  The  material  contains  nitrogen,  and  therefore 
yields  ammonia.  It  melts  in  the  retort,  and  the  vola 
tile  parts  escape  at  a  lower  heat  than  those  of  coal. 
This  may  account  in  some  degree  for  its  greater  yield  of 
oils,  and  their  freedom  from  impurities.  From  it  naph- 
thalin  is  seldom  produced  ;  and  although  paraffin  is  found 
among  its  products,  creasote  and  other  compounds  of  its 
class  exist  but  in  small  quantities,  while  the  illuminating 
oils  are  abundant.  The  oils  themselves  belong  to  a  series 
which  contains  less  carbon  than  ordinary  coal  oils.  They 
burn  freely,  and  give  a  clear,  white  light.  The  asphalte, 
or  bitumen,  of  the  Dead  Sea,  affords  much  oil,  mixed  with 
the  impurities  before  noticed.  There  is  present,  also,  a 
peculiar  volatile  oil,  which  gives  even  to  its  purest  pro 
ducts  an  unpleasant  smell.  This  might  properly  be  called 
odorine^  although  it  does  not  agree  with  the  odorine  of  Un- 
verdorben. 

The  bitumen  of  the  Pitch  Lake  of  Trinidad  contains  sul 
phur,  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen  issues  from  the  pit  where 
the  semi-liquid  mineral  is  discharged  from  the  earth.  By 
distillation  it  also  yields  a  whole  series  of  hydro-carbon 
oils,  some  of  which  have  been  called  naphtha,  and  repre 
sented  as  C6  H5 ;  others  C^  H16.  It  is  quite  evident  that 
bitumens  and  their  distillates  differ  materially  in  their  com 
position,  and  therefore  their  value  for  the  manufacture  of 
illuminating  oils,  or  for  gas,  can  only  be  ascertained  by 


112  PRODUCTS  OF  BITUMEN. 

experiment.  This  bitumen  yields  70  gallons  of  crude  oil 
per  ton  of  2240  Ibs.  The  impurities  in  its  first  distillate 
are  numerous.  Among  its  soluble  parts  pyroxilic  spirit 
and  other  products  of  the  distillation  of  wood  have  been 
detected,  giving  evidence  of  the  vegetable  origin  of  the 
pitch.  All  the  oils  distilled  from  this  substance  have  a 
most  forbidding  smell,  which  arises  from  a  volatile  oil. 
This  oil  bids  defiance  to  acids  and  alkalies,  indeed  the  lat 
ter  render  it  more  persistent. 

The  bitumens  of  Cuba  yield  from  100  to  140  gallons 
per  ton  of  the  crude  oil.  These,  when  purified,  are  admi 
rably  adapted  to  lamps.  A  British  company  shipped 
the  bitumens  (chapapote  of  the  Spaniards)  to  England  for 
the  making  of  lamp  and  lubricating  oils ;  but  the  odor 
followed  them,  and  presented  an  obstacle  of  significance. 
Few  of  the  bitumens  of  Central  and  South  America  have 
been  tested  in  reference  to  their  composition,  or  value  for 
hydro-carbon  oils.  Those  of  the  United  States  and  Canada 
are  beginning  to  draw  the  attention  of  manufacturers  in 
reference  to  their  value  in  competition  with  cannel  coals 
and  petroleum. 

The  bitumen  of  Canada  "West  contains  decayed  vege 
tables,  and  is  no  doubt  the  result  of  petroleum  that  has 
long  been  exposed  to  the  air  ;  2000  Ibs.  yielded  109  gallons 
of  crude  oils.  From  this  crude  product  64  gallons  of  lamp 
oils  were  distilled,  and  also  18  gallons  of  heavy  oils  suita 
ble  for  lubricating  machinery.  It  differs  very  essentially 
from  the  bitumens  of  the  West  India  Islands,  and  the  oils 
require  careful  purification.  The  great  diversity  in  the 
characters  of  these  substances  opens  an  extensive  range  for 
chemical  research. 

Bituminous  sands  and  clays  are  found  at  many  sites  in 
Central  and  South  America.  These,  when  submitted  to 


PRODUCTS  OF  BITUMINOUS  SANDS  AND   CLAYS.     113 

dry  distillation,  afford  various  quantities  of  gases  and  oils, 
which  possess  the  ordinary  characters  of  bitumen  oils. 
Among  those  substances  may  be  reckoned  the  "prairie 
gas  stone  "  of  Illinois,  of  which  glowing  descriptions  have 
appeared  in  newspapers.  This  is  a  grey  limestone,  with 
pores  and  cells  partially  filled  with  bitumen.  By  distilla 
tion  therefore  the  rock  yields  hydro-carbon  oils,  carburetted 
and  bicarburetted  hydrogen  gases.  One  sample  of  the  rock 
gave  at  the  rate  of  18  gallons  of  crude  oils,  per  ton.  The 
bituminous  brown  coal  of  Ouachita,  Arkansas,  has  already 
been  noticed. 

All  these  oils,  when  purified,  and  when  they  are  of. a 
specific  gravity  le.ss  than  0'850,  are  extremely  fluorescent. 
When  freed  from  acids  they  appear  yellow  by  transmitted 
light,  and  by  reflected  light  blue.  The  beautiful  hues  of 
the  rainbow  are  sometimes  brought  out  by  frequent  distil 
lations  and  the  use  of  sulphuric  acid  and  caustic  alkalies, 
by  which  the  illuminating  oils  are  frequently  injured.  It 
is  a  peculiar  feature  of  impure  coal  oils  to  change  color  by 
exposure  to  the  air  and  light.  Oils  that  come  from  the 
worm  of  the  still  perfectly  colorless  will  turn  yellow,  then 
red,  and  in  a  few  days  a  dark  brown.  Sometimes  this 
change  of  color  begins  at  the  surface  of  the  oil,  and  pro 
ceeds  downwards  until  the  whole  mass  is  discolored.  This 
arises  from  the  oxidation  of  the  impurities  by  the  atmo 
sphere.  Changes  of  color  also  arise  from  the  predominance 
of  an  acid  or  an  alkali  in  the  oil,  which  should  be  perfectly 
neutral.  The  purest  oils,  when  exposed  to  the  direct  rays 
of  light,  will  vary  in  color,  according  as  the  day  is  bright 
or  cloudy.  They  possess  photographic  properties  not  well 
understood. 

Some  of  the  petroleums,  when  exposed  to  the  air,  evapo 
rate  rapidly  down  to  a  thick  bitumen,  others  resist  evapo- 


114  PRODUCTS   OF   PETROLEUM. 

ration,  and  "  skin  over  "  like  linseed  oil.  Their  oils  differ 
from  those  distilled  from  coals.  They  require  a  greater 
heat  in  their  distillation,  and  their  vapors  are  extremely 
inflammable.  These  petroleum  oils  usually  commence  to 
boil  at  160°  Fah,,  but  sometimes  at  a  still  lower  degree  of 
heat.  The  lighter  or  spirituous  parts  of  the  charge  then 
begin  to  distil  off,  and  as  the  heat  is  increased  the  heavier 
portions  come  over  in  succession  until  the  thermometer 
reaches  565°,  when  paraffin,  if  any  be  present,  will  begin 
to  appear.  It  is  therefore  extremely  difficult  to  obtain  any 
one  specified  oil,  of  which  the  aggregate  is  compounded. 
A  thermometer  fixed  in  the  still  indicates  the  boiling  or 
distilling  point  of  the  mass  at  the  time  of  observation,  and 
nothing  more.  Each  of  the  oils  composing  the  aggregate 
collection  has  a  different  number  of  the  equivalents  of  car 
bon  and  hydrogen,  with  which  the  several  boiling  points 
doubtless  agree;  but  the  exact  rate  at  which  the  boiling 
point  does  increase,  according  to  the  proportions  of  carbon 
and  hydrogen  present  in  the  several  oils,  has  not  been  accu 
rately  discovered. 

Laurent  has  given  the  composition  of  some  of  the  oils 
distilled  from  bituminous  schists  as  follows: — 

Boiling  Points.  Carbon,      Hydrogen. 

144°  .        .        .        .        .        .        .  83  ]4-3 

171° 85  14-1 

216° 86-2  136 

304° 85-60  14-5 

St.  Evrre  gives  the  following : — 

Boiling  Points.  Carbon.      Hydrogen. 

520°  and  536°  .    .    .    .    .  36  34 

485°  "  500°  .    ....  ^  28  26 

414°  "  428°  ......  24  22 

268°  "  275°  18  16 


PRODUCTS   OF   CANDLE   TAR.         ,  115 

Candle  Tar. — When  the  tar  resulting  from  the  manufac 
ture  of  stearine  is  submitted  to  distillation,  it  sends  over  a 
series  of  oils,  the  chief  number  of  which  are  good  illumina 
tors.  Paraffin  also  appears  in  the  latter  part  of  the  ope 
ration.  Frequently  there  is  the  production  of  much  acro- 
leine,  the  vapor  of  which  produces  a  burning  sensation  in 
the  throat  and  nostrils,  and  is  very  unhealthy.  These  oils  are 
easily  purified  by  alternate  washings  with  sulphuric  acid 
and  sol-utions  of  the  caustic  alkalies,  with  final  distillation. 
They  are  of  a  light  orange  color.  The  lighter  oils  are 
colorless,  and  by  rectification  they  may  be  obtained  of  a 
specific  gravity  not  exceeding  0*680.  The  denser  oils  are 
superior  for  lamps. 

Caouichene,  or  oil  of  caoutchouc,  is  produced  by  the 
distillation  of  India  rubber,  at  a  moderate  heat.  A  series 
of  light  oils,  easy  of  purification,  is  the  result.  The  vapors 
are  very  heavy,  and  dissolve  the  resins,  shellac,  and  amber. 
These  oils  have  been  represented  as  being  caoutchene,  which 
boils  at  72°,  Faradayine  at  96°,  eupione  at  124°,  and 
caoutchme  at  330°. 

Gutla  Percha  yields  oils. nearly  allied  to  the  above. 


116  COMPOSITION   OF  DISTILLED  OILS. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

Composition  of  distilled  oils. — Homologous  compounds. — Table  of  the 
same. — Compounds  of  Carbon  and  Hydrogen. — Gaseous  compounds. — 
Homologues  obtained  from,  coal  tar,  coal,  bitumen,  caoutchouc,  etc. 

OXYGEN  OILS. 

BEEORE  entering  upon  a  description  of  the  methods 
employed  for  the  purification  of  the  before-mentioned  oils, 
it  is  considered  necessary  to  give  some  account  of  their 
component  parts  and  their  derivatives.  Oxygen  enters  into 
the  composition  of  all  animal  and  vegetable  oils,  unless 
those  oils  have  been  submitted  to  distillation,  which,  in 
general,  removes  their  oxygen  and  changes  their  charac 
ters.  The  oils  distilled  from  plants  with  water  are  known 
as  essences,  or  essential  oils.  They  seldom  contain  oxygen, 
and  are  therefore  called  hydro-carbon  oils.  The  volatile 
vegetable  oils  contain  oxygen  perhaps  without  an  exception. 
The  oils  distilled  from  the  bituminous  and  oleaginous 
substances  described  in  the  preceding  chapters  contain  no 
oxygen  when  they  are  pure  ;  they  are  composed  of  carbon 
and  hydrogen,  and  are  therefore  hydro-carbon  oils.  The 
greater  the  quantity  of  carbon,  in  proportion  to  the  hydro 
gen  any  one  of  them  contains,  the  greater  is  its  specific 
gravity,  the  higher  its  boiling  point,  density  of  vapor,  and 
tendency  to  smoke  when  employed  for  the  purpose  of  illu 
mination.  An  excess  of  carbon,  however,  does  no  harm 
to  any  oil  designed  for  lubrication,  but  rather  gives  it  con 
sistency  and  durability.  Regarding  lamp  oils,  the  greater 
the  amount  of  carbon  they  contain  the  greater  will  be  their 


ORGANIC  AND   HOMOLOGOUS  COMPOUNDS.  117 

illuminating  powers,  and  therefore  that  is  the  best  lamp, 
which,  when  lighted,  will  decompose  the  greatest  amount 
of  carbon  in  the  flame.  It  is  to  the  equivalents  of  carbon 
and  hydrogen  contained  in  oils  the  attention  turns  as  to 
a  starting-point  in  this  inquiry. 

ORGANIC  AND   HOMOLOGOUS  COMPOUNDS. 

It  is  well  understood  that  certain  series  of  organic  com 
pounds  occur,  in  which  the  quantities  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
oxygen,  and  nitrogen  increase  or  decrease,  rise  or  fall,  in 
exact  and  certain  quantities,  or  number  of  equivalents. 
Take,  for  example,  twenty  volatile  acids,  as  given  by  Dr. 
Gregory,  and  with  a  general  formula  of  C2  H2  04  ,*  as 
follows: — 


1  Formic  acid    

=  C2    H2    Oi 

2  Acetic      "              .... 

=  C4  H4  04 

3  Propylic  acid 

=  C6  H6  04 

4  Butyric      "             .... 

=  C8  H8  04 

5  Valerianic  acid        .... 

=  Cio  HIO  04 

6  Coproic         "           .... 

=   Ci2  HI->  04 

7  (Enanthylic  "           .... 

=   OH  Hi4  04 

8  Caprylic        "           .... 

=  GIG  H16  04 

9  Pelargonic    "           .... 

=  GIS  HIS  04 

10  Capric          "           .... 

=  Cjo  HM  O4 

11  Murgaritic    "           .... 

=  Co2  H22  O4 

12  I  aurostearic"          .... 

=  C,4  H-4  04 

13  Cocinic         "          .... 

=  Co6  H26  04 

14  Myristic       "          .        . 

=  C28  Hffl  04 

15  Benic           "          .        .        .        . 

=  C.30  H.,(,  04 

16  Ethalic         "           ..... 

=  C.32  H;52  04 

17  Margonic      "           .... 

=  C34  H«  04 

18  Basic            "          .... 

=  C36  H.36  04 

*  Handbook  of  Organic  Chemistry,  3d  Edition. 

By  William  Gregory. 

London,  1852. 


118  ORGANIC  AND   HOMOLOGOUS   COMPOUNDS. 

19  Balenic  acid  .        .        .         .         =  C&  TL&  04 

20  Behenic      "  =  C42  H42  04 

21  Cerotic  "  =  CM  H54  04 

22  Melissic      "  ....=060  H60  04 

Here  we  see  tlie  quantities  increased  by  the  number  2, 
while  the  oxygen  4  is  constant. 

By  his  able  and  ingenious  researches  Laurent  discovered 
a  law  of- substitution,  by  which  one  element  is  replaced  by 
another,  according  to  a  perfect  and  harmonious  system. 
The  correctness  of  this  doctrine  received  confirmation  by 
Dumas,  Dr.  Hofmann,  and  Baron  Liebig,  and  its  opponents 
yielded  up  their  views  to  its  facts. 

"Of  fifteen  elements,  the  equivalents  of  ten  of  them,  or 
two-thirds,  are  represented  by  whole  numbers,  that  is,  they 
are  exact  multiples  of  that  of  hydrogen,  the  lightest  of 
them  all.  They  are — 

"Hydrogen  .         .         ...         .  .      . '       =      I'O 

Oxygen      .         ...        .        .        .         =      8'0 

Nitrogen     ...-.....=    14'0 

Sulphur      .        ...        .        .        .         =    16'0 

Bromine     .        .        .        .        .        ..'."'    =    80'0 

Iodine         . =  125-0 

Fluorine      .        .        .  .        .        .         =    19'0 

Phosphorus         .  •      .        .        .        .         .        =32-0 

Arsenic       .         .         .         .         .         .         .         =    75'0 

Carbon 6.0 

11  If  only  ten  of  these  were  known  to  us,  the  law  would 
immediately  be  assumed  that  the  equivalents  of  the  metalloidal 
elements  are  exact  multiples  of  the  equivalent  of  hydrogen* 

A  series  of  types  has  therefore  been  discovered.  Those 
types  consist  of  different  elements,  and  to  which  other 
simple  substances  may  be  added,  or  replaced  while  the  ori- 

*   Elements  of  Chemistry.     By  M.  V.  Regnault.     Vol.  i.,  p.  347. 


ORGANIC  AND  HOMOLOGOUS  COMPOUNDS.  119 

ginal  type  is  preserved.  The  series  of  volatile  oily  acids  is 
only  one  of  a  number  of  such  series  already  made  out,  and 
to  which  the  oils  distilled  from  oleaginous  and  bituminous 
bodies  must  be  added.  These  series  are  homologous.  Each 
member  of  them  differs  from  the  others  by  a  certain  num 
ber  of  the  equivalents  of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  or  by  a 
multiple  of  them.  In  their  properties  these  compounds  are 
perfectly  analogous,  and  only  differ  in  degree,  and  the 
difference  is  exactly  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  carbon 
and  hydrogen  they  contain. 

Taking  the  example  given  by  Dr.  Gregory, 

"  Pyroxilic  spirit  is    .        .        .        .        .  C2  H4  02 

Alcohol  is C4  H6  02 

C6  H    02 

•        t  .  C8  H10  02 

Oil  of  potato  is       .       ,.        .       -.  do  H12  02 

Then  the  alcohol  and  pyroxilic  spirit  differ  by  C2  H2. 
The  oil  of  potato  and  pyroxilic  spirit  differ  by  4  C2  H2. 
The  compounds  between  the  oil  of  potato  and  alcohol  have 
•not  been  discovered. 

When  a  series  of  substances,  especially  if  derived  from 
the  same  source,  is  discovered  to  have  analogous  properties, 
it  may  be  presumed  that  their  compounds  are  homologous. 
Although  some  of  the  members  of  the  group,  or  links  in 
the  chain,  are  undiscovered,  they  may  yet  be  obtained,  and 
the  perfect  series  completed.  It  is  only  a  few  years  since 
two  of  the  acids  obtained  by  the  oxidation  of  alcohol — the 
formic  (C3  H  03)  and  acetic  C4  H3  03) — were  known.  Now 
recent  discoveries  have  filled  up  the  series  to  sixty  equi 
valents  of  carbon. 

The  alcohols  and  ethers,  and  the  acids  of  their  different 
series,  differ  by  C2  H2,  or  multiples  of  one  or  both  of  these 
numbers.  Still,  in  all  the  members  of  a  group  there  is  a 


120  ORGANIC  AND   HOMOLOGOUS  COMPOUNDS. 

family  likeness.  Here,  also,  the  boiling  point,  and  the 
density  of  the  vapor,  are  governed  by  the  proportion  of 
carbon  present.  Ethyle,  methyle,  etc.,  have  their  deriva 
tives.  Each  of  these  derivatives  is  the  starting-point  of  a 
series  of  homologues.  M.  Dumas,  Dr.  Gregory,  and  others, 
have  brought  to  notice  the  great  analogy  between  the  ele 
mentary  groups — chlorine,  bromine,  iodine,  potassium, 
sodium,  lithium,  etc.,  and  homologous  organic  groups. 
Every  organic  compound  belongs  to  some  series  in  which 
each  individual  member  of  the  elementary  substances  is 
increased  or  diminished  by  certain  regular  and  fixed  quan 
tities.  The  fact  may  be  again  repeated,  that  the  oils  before 
described  as  resulting  from  the  distillation  of  'the  different 
oleaginous  and  bituminous  compounds,  are  not  each  a 
single  oil  of  their  kind,  but  consist  of  many  members,  which 
form  a  series  of  oils  distinct  one  from  the  other.  They  have 
the  same  root,  but  differ  in  the  branches.  Each  mem 
ber  of  all  their  several  groups  contains  a  different  num 
ber  of  the  equivalents  of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  forming 
chains  which  rise,  step  by  step,  from  the  solid  to  the  liquid, 
and  from  a  dense  liquid  to  a  light  and  extremely  volatile 
spirit,  and  finally  to  a  gas.  Again,  each  of  those  members 
is  capable  of  forming  entirely  new  series  of  compounds, 
when  combined  with  other  elements.  As  regards  the  original 
oily  groups,  when  their  components  of  carbon  and  nitrogen 
are  the  same,  their  properties  will  be  the  same,  irrespective 
of  their  origin.  They  will  give  the  same  amount  of  light 
when  burned  in  lamps,  and  be  equally  applicable  to  useful 
purposes.  This  likeness  can  only  be  discovered  by  their 
specific  gravity,  boiling  points,  and,  more  important  than 
all,  by  their  ultimate  analysis  by  the  chemist.  As  all 
those  oils  are  capable  of  affording  light,  and  the  term 
"  photogen"  applies  only  to  one  of  them,  the  appella 


ORGANIC  AND  HOMOLOGOUS   COMPOUNDS.  121 

tion  of  hydro-carbon,  or  lamp  oils,   lias  been  applied  to 
all  that  are  now  consumed  for  illuminating  purposes. 

As  the  oils  here  treated  of  consist  of  carbon  and  hydro 
gen,  some  notice  may  be  taken  of  those  two  elements. 
Carbon  occurs  abundantly  in  the  animal,  vegetable,  and 
mineral  kingdoms.  In  its  pure  and  crystallized  state  it 
constitutes  the  diamond.  It  is  the  chief  substance  of  plum 
bago,  and  frequently  forms  more  than  ninety  per  cent,  of 
anthracite  coal.  It  is  essential  to  the  organization  of  ani 
mals,  and  enters  extensively  into  the  composition  of  mine 
rals,  especially  the  varieties  of  coal,  bitumen,  petroleum, 
etc..  and  all  substances  of  vegetable  origin.  Carbon  appears 
also  in  the  gases  of  coal  mines,  as  carburetted  hydrogen,  or 
fire-damp,  or  carbonic  acid,  or  choke-damp.  When  organic 
matter  is  heated  in  close  vessels,  volatile  substances  are 
expelled ;  these  consist  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and 
oxygen ;  the  residue  is  carbon  mixed  with  the  ash — the 
minerals  that  enter  into  the  composition  of  the  wood.  Car 
bon  is  without  taste  or  smell,  and  insoluble.  It  resists 
decomposition,  and,  when  buried  in  the  earth,  is  imperish 
able. 

Combined  with  oxygen,  carbon  forms  two  gaseous  com 
pounds,  carbonic  acid  and  carbonic  oxide.  Carbonic  oxide 
may  be  considered  a  compound  radical.  It  combines  with 
chlorine,  oxygen,  and  the  metals.  It  is  a  transparent, 
colorless  gas,  without  taste  or  smell,  and,  when  inhaled,  is 
fatal  to  animal  life.  This  gas  takes  fire,  and  burns  with  a 
fine  blue  flame,  which  is  often  seen  on  the  surface  of  coals 
burning  in  a  grate. 

Carbonic  acid  is  formed  by  the  respiration  of  animals, 
and  by  vinous  fermentation.  It  is  a  product  of  combus 
tion,  and  is  produced  artificially  by  the  action  of  acids  upon 
carbonate  of  lime.  It  is  a  colorless  gas,  and  so  much  hea- 


122  ORGANIC  AND  HOMOLOGOUS  COMPOUNDS. 

vier  than  air,  that  it  may  be  contained  in  open  vessels. 
The  effervescing  properties  of  wine,  beer,  soda-water,  and 
some  mineral  waters,  arise  from  the  presence  of  this  acid. 
It  forms  the  food  of  growing  plants,  a  part  of  which  they 
retain  in  their  structures.  Another  part  is  expelled,  and  is 
found  in  the  atmosphere. 

Hydrogen  forms  one-ninth  part,  by  weight,  of  water,  and 
exists  in  vegetable  and  animal  substances.  It  has  neither 
taste,  color,  nor  smell,  and  is  the  lightest  substance  dis 
covered  in  nature.  It  is  nearly  sixteen  times  lighter  than 
oxygen,  and  fourteen  and  a  half  times  lighter  than  air.  It 
was,  therefore,  first  employed  in  floating  air  balloons.  A 
pressure  of  a  thousand  atmospheres  has  no  sensible  effect 
in  the  condensation  of  hydrogen  gas.  Sound  moves  with 
three  times  the  velocity  in  hydrogen  that  it  does  in  com 
mon  air,  and  it  refracts  light  with  more  power  than  any 
other  gas.  The  greater  the  quantity  of  hydrogen  present 
in  any  body,  the  less  will  be  its  weight,  or  specific  gravity. 
It  is  thus  with  the  hydro-carbon  oils.  Hydrogen  is  also 
the  most  inflammable  substance  in  nature ;  it  burns  with 
an  almost  colorless  flarne,  and  great  heat.  The  opinion  is 
entertained  by  some,  that  hydrogen  is  a  gaseous  metal,  as 
mercury  is  a  liquid  metal. 

Carbon  and  Hydrogen,  hydro-carbons. — Carbon  and  hydro 
gen  combine  in  a  great  number  of  proportions,  and  conse 
quently  produce  numerous  compounds ;  and  as  both  ele 
ments  are  combustible,  their  compounds  are  also  combusti 
ble  and  inflammable.  By  some  these  compounds  are  called 
carbo-hydrogens.  At  the  ordinary  temperatures,  some  of 
these  are  solid,  such  as  paraffin,  naphthalin,  etc. ;  others 
are  liquid,  as  the  oils  of  lemons,  naphtha,  etc.  Two  of 
them  are  gaseous,  namely,  light  carburetted  hydrogen  gas, 
and  olefiant  gas,  which  are  the  roots  of  two,  if  not  more, 


ORGANIC  AND  HOMOLOGOUS  COMPOUNDS.  123 

series  of  compounds.  All  these  compounds  are  the  pro 
ducts  of  vegetables,  or  they  are  produced  from  the  decay 
or  destructive  distillation  of  organic  matter. 

Carbureited  hydrogen  (C,  II2)  mixed  with  atmospheric  air 
is  the  explosive  fire-damp  of  coal  mines,  and  it  frequently 
issues  from  the  earth  through  fissures  connected  with  beds 
of  coal,  or  collections  of  petroleum.  When  mixed  with 
twice  its  volume  of  oxygen,  it  explodes  with  great  vio 
lence.  If  mixed  with  about  six  times  its  volume  of  air,  it 
also  explodes.  By  this  mixture  gasometers  have  been 
blown  up  with  terrible  effect, 

Bi-carburetted  hydrogen,  or  olefiant  gas  (C2 IT2),  mixed  with 
the  above  and  other  gases,  occurs  in  coal  mines.  It  is  also 
transparent  and  colorless.  It  takes  fire  readil}r,  and  burns 
with  a  white  flame,  giving  out  much  light.  It  is  also  the 
root  of  an  extensive  series  of  hydro-carbons.  This  gas  and 
the  preceding  carburetted  hydrogen,  when  pure,  form  what 
is  known  as  coal  gas,  now  extensively  employed  to  light 
cities.  Its  value  depends  much  upon  the  quantity  of  ole 
fiant  gas  contained  in  the  mixture. 

The  light  produced  by  the  combustion  of  the  hydro 
carbon  oils  is  like  that  of  coal  gas.  It  is  from  gas  in  both 
instances.  The  oils  are  put  in  lamps,  and  inflamed ;  the 
gas  is  produced  at  the  top  of  the  wick,  and  decomposed 
instantaneously.  In  the  other  instance,  the  gas  is  made  by 
heating  the  coals  in  retorts,  and  storing  it  in  gasometers 
ready  for  use,  and  its  distribution  through  pipes  and 
burners.  '  In  the  benzole,  or  atmospheric  light,  the  vapor 
of  the  hydro-carbon  is  conveyed  in  the  air  to  the  burner, 
and  there  burned  as  coal  gas.  The  fluctuations  in  the  con 
densation  of  this  vapor  by  changes  of  temperature 
are  impediments  to  this  mode  of  supplying  artificial 
light. 


124 


ORGANIC  AND   HOMOLOGOUS   COMPOUNDS. 


Homologous  series  obtained  from  coal  tar.  The  radical  is 
C10  H4 ;  the  multiple  is  C2  H2. 

Boiling  point.  Spec.  grav. 

Ci<>  H4  135° 

Cia  H6  Benzole ....  186  850 

Ci4H8  Toluene.     ...  237  870 

Cie  H10  Xylole   ....  288 

CM  Hi2  Cumole  ....  339 

C20  HU  Cymole  ....  490  * 

It  will  be  here  observed  that  the  boiling  point  rises 
25*5°  for  every  additional  equivalent  of  carbon.  By  the 
action  of  chlorine,  bromine,  nitric  acid,  etc.,  each  of  the 
above  hydro-carbons  forms  the  root  of  other  distinct  and 
well-defined  series,  f 

Homologous  series  obtained  from  the  bitumen  of  Trinidad^ 
distilled  at  a  low  heat : 


No. 

Carbon. 

Hydrog. 

Sp.  grav.      Soiling  point. 

1 

4 

3 

0710  ' 

130° 

2 

5 

4 

0-720 

155 

3 

6 

5 

0.730 

180 

4 

7 

6 

0.740 

205 

5 

'  8 

7 

0.750 

230" 

6 

9 

8 

0.760 

255 

7 

10 

9 

0.770 

280 

8. 
9 

11 
12 

10 
11 

0.780 
0.790 

305 
330 

Embracing  the  hydro 
carbon  oils  suitable  for 

10 
11 

13 
14 

12 
13 

0.800 
0.810 

355 
380 

.  lamps.  Specific  gravity 
of  the  whole  when  mixed 

12 

15 

14 

0.820 

405 

0-819. 

13 

16 

15 

0-830 

430 

14 

17 

16 

0-840 

455 

15 

18 

17 

0-850 

480 

16 

19 

18 

0-860 

505, 

*  Generally  represented  as  C2o  IT  15. 

f  See  Gregory's  Handbook  of  Organic  Chemistry,  3d  edit.,  p.  129. 


ORGANIC  AND   HOMOLOGOUS   COMPOUNDS.  125 

No.        Carbon.    Hydrog.  Sp  gray.        Boiling  point. 

17  20          19  0-870  530 

18  21          20  0-880  555 

19  22          21  Paraffin  0'890  580* 

A  sample  of  petroleum  from  Western  Virginia  produced 
a  series  of  oils  agreeing  with  the  foregoing,  but  there  is 
much  diversity  in  the  character  of  the  petroleum  in  regard 
to  their  densities  and  boiling  points,  and  it  is  remarkable 
that  the  denser  oils  require  a  higher  degree  of  heat  for  their 
distillation  than  oils  of  the  same  specific  gravity  obtained 
from  coals. 

The  bitumen  of  Cuba,  Albert  coal,  bituminous  shale  of 
Albert  county,  the  petroleum  of  Virginia,  and  candle  tar, 
produce  the  same  series  of  hydro-carbons. 

The  series  obtained  from  Breckenridge  coal,  distilled  at 
ah  average  heat  of  780°,  was  as  follows : 

No.  Carbon.         Hydrog. 

142     Supposed  to  exist,  but  not  condensed. 
264 

3  8  61 

4  10  8 

5  12  10        Embracing    the    hydro-carbon    oils 

6  12  r  suitable  for  lamps  when  mixed.     Spec. 

7  16  14     grav.  0'819. 

8  18  16 

9  20  18- 

10  22  20        Paraffin. 

A  coal  from  Kanawha,  Virginia,  when  distilled  at  a  heat 
of  900°,  gave  part  of  a  series  thus: 

*  There  is  some  diversity  of  opinion  regarding  the  condition  of  a  liquid 
when  it  is  said  to  boil.  In  taking  the  boiling  points  of  the  foregoing,  the  oils 
were  allowed  to  be  in  a  state  of  full  ebullition,  and  distillation  commenced  at 
the  times  when  the  heat  was  recorded  by  the  Thermometer,  the  barometer 
being  at  30— Fractions  were  omitted. 


126  OKGANIC   AND  HOMOLOGOUS   COMPOUNDS. 


No. 

Carbon. 

Hydrog. 

1 

8 

4 

2 

12 

8 

4 

116 

12 

4 

18 

16 

Caoutchouc  was  distilled  at  a  moderate  heat,  and  the 
following  was  the  series  produced : 

No.  t  Carbon.  Hydrog.  8p.  grar.  Boiling  point. 

1        8        7        678        94 
298 

3  10        9 

4  11       10 

5  13       11 

6  14       12 

Other  series  of  hydro-carbons  might  be  laid  down  ;  but 
the  foregoing  are  sufficient  to  demonstrate  the  existence  of 
a  system  which  cannot  be  carried  forward  to  perfection 
without  great  labor  and  research.  This  system  is  being 
gradually  extended  to  every  branch  of  chemistry,  and  is 
bringing  the  science  into  a  beautiful  harmony  with  mathe 
matics,  and  its  kindred  study,  Astronomy. 

To  the  manufacturer  it  is  of  the  first  importance.  It 
teaches  him  that  he  has  to  deal  with  a  great  variety  of 
compounds.  An  increase  in  the  degree  of  heat  employed 
in  his  operations  will  change  the  properties  of  the  products, 
increase  the  proportion  of  carbon,  and  defeat  him  in  his 
objects.  A  temperature  too  low  will  give  results  to  disap 
point  him.  He  cannot  fail  to  observe  the  different  proofs 
at  which  his  oils  flow  from  the  still,  and  the  constant 
increase  of  heat  required  to  produce  them  in  the  process  of 
refining  and  purifying ;  and  having  obtained  even  an  in 
distinct  view  of  the  point  he  would  reach,  his  skill  and 
experience  will  bring  to  him  that  knowledge  of  his  art 
he  desires. 


OXIDATION  OF  IMPURITIES  IN  HYDRO-CARBON  OILS.    127 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

Oxidation  of  the  impurities  contained  in  crude  hydro-carbon  oils. — Action  of 
acids,  alkalies,  and  other  agents. — Sulphuric  acid,  nitric  acid,  permanga 
nate  of  potash. — Methods  of  purification. — Extracts  from  patents,  etc. 

WHEN  oils  were  first  distilled  from  coals,  few  attempts 
were  made  to  free  them  from  their  offensive  odors,  or 
remove  their  coloring  matters.  The  only  mode  practised 
was  fractional  distillation,  which  is  altogether  quite  inef 
fectual  for  that  purpose.  Although  the  oil  made  by  the 
Earl  of  Dundonald  in  1781  was  burned  in  lamps,  it  does 
not  appear  that  any  process  of  purification  was  practised  at 
that  time.  The  earliest  mode  of  purifying  petroleum  was 
simply  to  distil  it  with  water,  and  this  is  more  beneficial 
than  some  of  the  modes  practised  in  the  present  day,  by 
which  the  characters  of  the  oils  are  changed  and  their  illu 
minating  powers  deteriorated. 

The  great  number  of  impurities  contained  in  the  oils  dis 
tilled  from  coals,  whether  from  coal  tar  or  crude  coal  oil, 
renders  their  purification  somewhat  difficult,  expensive,  and 
uncertain.  The  varieties  of  coals  and  other  substances 
employed  to  obtain  hydro-carbon  oils,  the  fluctuations  of 
heat  in  distillation,  and  varying  qualities  of  reagents,  will 
ever  require  the  care  and  skill  of  the  practical  chemist  to 
overcome  them.  Much  has  been  done  in  the  purification 
of  those  oils,  much  is  still  to  be  performed  before  they  are 
made  perfect,  namely,  free  from  all  offensive  odor,  and  free 
from  color.  The  great  difference  observed  in  the  qualities 
of  the  oils  in  the  market  arises  less  from  the  different  modes 


128    ACIDS,  ALKALIES,  AND  OTHER  OXIDATING  AGENTS. 

by  which  those  oils  are  treated,  than  from  the  properties  of 
the  coal  from  which  they  were  distilled. 


ACIDS,   ALKALIES,   AND  OTHER  OXIDATING  AGENTS. 

Acids,  alkalies,  peroxide  of  manganese,  permanganate  of 
potash,  bichromate  of  potash,  etc.,  have  been  unsparingly 
used  in  the  purification  of  hydro-carbon  oils,  on  account  of 
their  oxidating  properties.  The  object  of  chemists  has 
been  to  impart  oxygen  to  the  impurities,  by  which  they 
separate  themselves  from  the  oils,  and  generally  fall  to  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel  that  contains  them. 

The  oxidation  of  organic  compounds  takes  place  in  seve 
ral  ways.  In  combustion  atmospheric  oxygen  is  aided  by 
a  high  temperature.  If  the  supply  of  air  be  deficient,  as 
in  the  case  of  a  burning  lamp,  the  hydrogen,  from  a  greater 
attraction  for  oxygen,  is  oxidated,  and  the  carbon  of  the 
oil  appears  in  smoke  or  soot.  The  decay  of  wood  is  pro 
duced  by  oxidation,  and  ulmine  is  the  result.  So  also  in 
some  of  the  impurities  in  hydro-carbon  oils ;  their  combi 
nation  with  oxygen  gives  them  new  characters,  by  which 
they  no  longer  remain  with  their  native  liquids.  Eeagehts 
may  be  applied  to  oils  that  will  not  separate  from  them 
until  exposed  to  the  heat  of  distillation.  By  its  oxidating 
properties  permanganate  of  potash  converts  sugar  into 
oxalic  acid.  Bichromate  of  potash  dilated  with  sulphuric 
acid  converts  salicine  into  the  hydruret  of  salicile,  or  oil  of 
spirea.  Organic  substances  are  oxidated  by  the  atmosphere, 
and  its  action  promoted  by  a  high  temperature.  Hot  air 
has  therefore  been  forced  through  hydro-carbon  oil  during 
the  process  of  purification,  and,  in  some  instances,  with 
advantage. 


ACTION  OF  SULPHURIC  ACID.  129 

Action  of  sulphuric  acid. — In  general,  when  sulphuric 
acid  is  applied  to  organic  compounds  (and  such  are  the  oils 
under  consideration),  it  decomposes,  or  chars  them.  By 
the  aid  of  heat  its  effects  are  more  powerful,  and  it  trans 
mutes  starch  and  lignine  into  grape  sugar.  Its  action  upon 
naphthalin  and  other  compounds  of  carbon  and  hydrogen 
has  been  before  noticed.  Paraffin  is  not  sensibly  affected, 
when  boiled  with  sulphuric  acid.  For  this  reason  it  is 
employed  in  the  purification  of  that  substance,  as  it  abso 
lutely  burns  out  all  its  impurities.  Sulphuric  acid,  or  oil 
of  vitriol,  is  now  universally  used  in  the  purification  of  coal 
oils,  by  which  some  of  their  impurities  are  converted  into 
tar,  or  rendered  soluble  in  water.  The  acid  may  be  sepa 
rated  from  the  tar  by  distillation.  This  acid  always  decom 
poses  a  part  of  the  oils  in  proportion  to  its  strength  and 
the  quantity  employed.  It  is  a  powerful  purifier.  It 
removes  one  kind  of  odor  and  substitutes  another  less  dis 
agreeable.  How  far  it  changes  the  characters  of  the  oils 
has  not  been  determined  ;  but  in  some  instances,  when  it  is 
used  in  large  quantities,  there  can  be  no  doubt  it  produces 
what  may  be  called  sulpho-oils,  which  are  unchangeable  by 
the  use  of  alkalies.  Certain  it  is  that  these  sulpho-oils  are 
quite  dissimilar  to  the  natural  oils  obtained  by  the  frac 
tional  distillation  of  coal  oils,  and  are  inferior  to  them  for 
the  purposes  of  illumination.  The  powerful  effects  of  the 
before-mentioned  acid  in  removing  impurities  from  the  dis 
tillates  of  coal,  and  its  cheapness,  have  brought  it  into  gene 
ral  use.* 

.  Action  of  nitric  acid. — The  operations  of  nitric  acid  upon 
organic  substances  are  very  numerous.  It  usually,  if  not 
always,  produces  one  or  more  acids.  From  gum  there 

*  The  average  specific  gravity  of  commercial  sulphuric  acid  is  1'800.  It 
sometimes  contains  nitric  acid. 


130  PURIFICATION  OF  HYDRO-CARBON   OILS. 

comes  mucic  acid ;  from  indigo,  indigotic  and  nitro-picric 
acids ;  from  stearic  acid,  margaric  acid,  etc.  Laurent  has 
clearly  described  the  action,  of  nitric  acid  upon  naphtha- 
lin. 

Benzole  admits  of  having  its  hydrogen  replaced  by  one, 
two,  or  three  equivalents  of  nitric  acid.  This  remark 
applies  equally  to  eupion  and  all  the  lighter  products  dis 
tilled  from  coals,  petroleum,  etc.  All  these  compounds 
have  an  aromatic  odor.  As  an  instance,  when  benzole  is 
saturated  with  fuming  nitric  acid,  and  water  is  added  to  the 
hot  solution,  nitro-benzole  subsides  as  a  yellow  oil  with  the 
odor  of  cinnamon.  It  is  sold  as  the  oil  of  bitter  almonds. 
Other  light  hydro-carbons  give  similar  results,  and  a  great 
number  of  oils,  useful  for  perfumery  and  cookery,  may  be 
produced  from  them. 

As  an  oxidator  nitric  acid  is  more  powerful  than  sul 
phuric  acid ;  but  it  exerts  a  greater  action  on  the  oils  them 
selves,  changing  them  into  nitro  oils,  and  removing  them 
further  away  from  the  natural  products  of  the  material 
first  employed. 

Permanganate  of  potash  must  be  included  among  the 
materials  used  for  oxidating  the  impurities  contained  in 
distilled  oils.  Its  effects  are  feeble  when  compared  with 
those  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  its  price  is  too  great  a  draw 
back  on  the  profits  of  the  manufacturer. 


METHODS    EMPLOYED  FOR  THE    PURIFICATION   OF  HYDRO 
CARBON   OILS. 

The  earliest  writers  on  the  production  of  oils  from  coals 
and  other  analogous  substances,  did  not  describe  any  very 
satisfactory  mode  by  which  those  oils  could  be  purified. 
Selligue  was  perhaps  the  first  to  supply  a  method  for  this 


MANSFIELD'S  PROCESS.  131 

purpose;  and  it  appears  in  the  voluminous  specification 
of  his  patent.*  He  commenced  by  agitating  the  oils  with 
sulphuric,  muriatic,  or  nitric  acid.  The  agitation  was  con 
tinued  for  some  time,  so  that  every  particle  of  the  oil 
should  be  brought  in  contact  with  the  acid,  and  a  certain 
change  of  color  had  taken  place.  His  agitators  were  of 
peculiar  construction,  and  he  has  described  them  at  length. 
After  the  oil  and  acid  had  been  allowed  time  to  separate, 
the  former  was  decanted  and  washed  with  soap-maker's  lye, 
proof  36°  to  38°-  Baume.  Thus  a  part  of  the  coloring 
matter  was  precipitated,  although  some  of  the  lye  was  sub 
sequently  permitted  to  go  into  the  still  with  the  oils. 
Fractional  distillation  was  also  resorted  to,  which  with 
variations  in  the  above  mode  enabled  the  chemist  to  pro 
duce  oils  of  good  quality.  The  specification  of  Selligue 
was  written  with  great  care  ;  but  his  operations  were  com 
plex  and  expensive.  The  alternate  use  of  acids  and  alka 
lies  forms  the  principal  feature  in  the  purification  of  those 
oils  at  the  present  time. 

MANSFIELD'S  PROCESS. 

In  1847  C.  B.  Mansfield  of  Cambridge,  England,  obtained 
a  patent  for  the  "purification  of  spirituous  substances  and 
oils"  derived  from  'coal  tar,  &c.  Of  the  products  of  coal 
tar  he  describes  five,  namely,  alliole,  benzole,  toluole,  cam- 
phole,  mortuole,  and  nitro-benzole ;  for  each  of  these 
classes  he  modified  the  treatment.  To  alliole  and  benzole, 
he  applied  diluted  sulphuric  or  hydrochloric  acid,  and  agi 
tated  the  mixture,  which  was  allowed  to  settle,  when  the 
acid  and  impurities  were  drawn  off.  The  spirits  and  oils 

*  Specification  No.   10,726,  English  Patent  Office.     Translated  by  Du 
Buisson. 


132  YOUNG'S  PEOCESS. 

were  then  agitated  with  water,  which  was  also  afterwards 
removed,  and  the  spirits  and  oils  placed  in  a  vessel  of  fresh 
burnt  lime,  and  finally  rectified  by  distillation.  The  tolu- 
ole,  etc.,  were  purified  by  a  similar  method,  except  that 
stronger  and  greater  quantities  of  the  acids  were  employed, 
and  the  number  of  distillations  increased.  The  specifica 
tion  of  this  patent  is  also  of  great  length,  and  directed  to 
objects  foreign  to  the  purification  of  the  oils  derived  from 
bituminous  substances. 


YOUNG'S  PKOCESS. 

This  alleged  improvement  consists  in  treating  bituminous 
coals  in  suCh  a  manner  as  to  obtain  therefrom  an  oil  con 
taining  paraffin,  which  is  denominated  "paraffin"  oil,  and 
from  which  Mr.  Young  obtains  paraffin.  He  employs 
"Parrot  coal,"  "cannel  coal,"  and  "gas  coal."  These  are 
broken  up  to  about  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg,  and  distilled  in 
common  gas -retorts  with  worm  pipes  and  the  ordinary  refri 
gerators  of  stills,  the  water  in  them  being  kept  at  a  tem 
perature  of  about  55°  Fah.,  by  a  stream  of  cold -water 
entering  the  worm  cistern.  The  retort  is  kept  at  a  low 
red  heat.  The  retort  is  heated  up  gradually,  and  the  pro 
duct  is  an  oil  containing  paraffin. 

The  crude  oil  is  put  into  a  cistern,  and  steam  heat  applied 
up  to  about  156°.  This  separates  some  of  the  impurities, 
and  the  oil  is  run  off  into  another  vessel,  leaving  the  impu 
rities  behind.  The  oil  is  then  distilled  in  an  iron  still  with 
a  worm  pipe  and  refrigerator,  the  water  in  the  latter  being 
kept  at  55°  Fah.  The  oil  thus  distilled  is  then  agitated 
with  ten  per  cent,  of  oil  of  vitriol  one  hour.  It  is  then 
allowed  to  settle  twelve  hours,  when  it  is  drawn  off  from 


KEROSENE  PROCESS.  133 

the  acid  and  impurities  into  an  iron  vessel,  where  it  is 
again  agitated  with  four  per  cent,  of  the  solution  of  caustic 
soda  of  specific  gravity  1'SOO.  Six  hours  are  again  allowed 
for  the  alkali  and  impurities  to  settle,  when  the  oil  is  again 
drawn  off  and  distilled  with  half  its  bulk  of  water;  water 
being  run  into  the  still  from  time  to  time  to  supply  the 
quantity  distilled  off.  The  lighter  oil  comes  over  with  the 
steam,  and  is  employed  for  illumination.  The  oil  left  in 
the  still  is  carefully  separated  from  all  water  and  put  into  a 
leaden  vessel,  and.  there  agitated  with  two  per  cent,  of  oil 
of  vitriol.  It  is  then  allowed  to  settle  twenty-four  hours. 
This  oil  is  then,  run  into  another  vessel,  and  to  every  100 
gallons  there  are  added  twenty -eight  pounds  of  chalk, 
ground  up  with  water  into  a  paste.  The  oil  and  chalk  are 
agitated  together  until  the  oil  is  freed  from  acid.  After  it 
nas  remained  a  week  at  rest,  it  is  used  for  lubricating 
machinery,  and  may  be  mixed  with  animal  or  vegetable 
oils  for  that  purpose.  To  obtain  the  paraffin  the  oil  con 
taining  it  is  brought  down  to  a  temperature  of  30°  Fah., 
when  paraffin  will  crystallize  and  separate  itself  from  the 
oil,  or  it  may  be  filtered  and  finally  submitted  to  pressure. 
Again  it  is  agitated  with  its  bulk  of  oil  of  vitriol,  and  the 
operation  repeated  until  the  acid  ceases  to  be  colored  by 
the  paraffin,  which  is  kept  melted  during  the  opera 
tion.* 


KEROSENE   PROCESS. 

The  specification  describes  the  process  for  obtaining  oils, 
denominated  Kerosene,  from  "  bitumen  wherever  found." 
The  Kerosene  consists  of  three  distinct  hydro-carbons, 

*  Extracted  from  the  patent  of  James  Young. 


134  KEROSENE  PROCESS. 

namely,  A  Kerosene,  B  Kerosene,  and  C  Kerosene.  The 
C  Kerosene,  or  that  which  is  employed  in  lamps,  may  be 
formed  by  an  admixture  of  the  light  with  the  heavier  oils, 
until  the  specific  gravity'  is  raised  up  to  about  0*800,  water 
being  1000.  The  first  part  of  the  process  consists  in  sub 
mitting  the  raw  material  to  dry,  or  decomposing  distilla 
tion,  in  large  cast  iron  retorts  at  a  temperature  not  exceed 
ing  800°.  The  condensation  of  the  vapors  is  effected  in 
iron  pipes,  or  chambers,  surrounded  by  water. 

"  The  liquid  products  of  this  distillation  are  heavy  tar 
and  water,  or  ammoniacal  liquor,  which  lie  at  the  bottom 
of  the  receiver,  and  a  lighter  fluid  which  floats  above 
them."  The  heavy  fluids  and  the  light  are  separated  by 
drawing  off  one  from  the  other.  "  The  heavy  liquids  may 
be  utilised  or  disposed  of  advantageously  ;  but  they  have 
no  further  connexion  with  this  process."  The  light  liquid 
is  submitted  to  re-distillation  at  the  lowest  possible  heat,  in 
a  common  still  and  a  condenser.  The  products  of  this 
distillation  are  a  light,  volatile  liquid,  which  accumulates 
in  the  receiver,  and  a  heavy  residuum  left  in  the  still,  and 
which  may  be  added  to  the  heavy  liquid  impurities  of  the 
first  distillation. 

The  light  liquid  is  transferred  from  the  receiver  to  a 
suitable  vessel  or  vat,  and  mixed  thoroughly  with  from 
five  to  ten  per  cent,  of  strong  sulphuric,  nitric,  or  muriatic 
acid,  according  to  the  quantity  of  tar  present.  Seven  per 
cent,  is  about  the  average  quantity  of  acid  required.  The 
preference  is  given  to  sulphuric  acid.  With  the  acid  and 
oil,  from  one  to  three  per  cent,  of  the  peroxide  of  manga 
nese  is  added,  and  the  whole  thoroughly  agitated  together. 
The  mixture  is  allowed  to  stand  undisturbed  from  twelve 
to  twenty-four  hours,  in  order  that  the  impurities  may  sub 
side.  The  light,  supernatant  fluid  is  now  drawn  off  into 


KEROSENE  PROCESS.  135 

another  vessel.  The  distillate  is  then  mixed  with  two  per 
cent,  or  more  of  freshly  calcined  lime,  which  takes  up  any 
water  that  may  be  present,  and  neutralizes  the  acid.  The 
oil  is  then  distilled,  and  finally  rectified,  if  necessary.  The 
product  is  kerosene,  the  lightest  part  -of  which  is  called  A 
kerosene,  and  the  two  succeeding  parts  B  and  C  kero 
sene.* 

The  above  mode  has  been  much  improved  by  the  use  of 
steam,  introduced  into  or  above  the  oils  during  their  distil 
lation,  by  diminishing  the  quantity  of  acid  and  washing  with 
water.  The  latter  removes  much  of  the  soluble  impuri 
ties.  The  A  kerosene  is  perfectly  colorless,  and  has  a  close 
analogy  to  eupion.  The  remaining  hydro-carbon  oils  are 
of  a  light  straw-color.  They  burn  freely  in  lamps,  without 
incrustation  of  the  wick. 

There  are  a  number  of  oil  manufactories  in  Germany. 
In  some  of  these  shales  are  used,  in  others  cannel  coal.  The 
coal  is  usually  broken  into  small  pieces,  and  when  it  con 
tains  sulphur  it  is  moistened  with  lime-water.  The  coal 
is  then  thoroughly  dried  in  a  furnace  constructed  for  the 
purpose.  The  dried  coals  are  distilled  in  common  gas 
retorts,  the  eduction  pipes  of  which  open  at  the  ends  oppo 
site  their  heads.  In  some  instances  the  flame  of  the  fur 
nace  is  not  permitted  to  strike  the  sides  or  upper  surface 
of  the  retort. 

Paul  Wagenmann,  of  Bonn,  Ehenish  Prussia,  in  his 
patent,  states  as  follows ; 

"  My  improvements  consist  in  breaking  the  coal  or  bitu 
minous  slate  in  pieces  of  about  the  size  of  a  walnut ;  and 
if  they  are  very  sulphurous  I  sprinkle  them  with  lime- 
water.  They  are  then  taken  to  a  drying-furnace  of  the 


Extracted  from  copies  of  the  kerosene  patents. 
10 


136  WAGENMANN'S  PROCESS. 

following  construction :  A  space  by  preference  of  two 
hundred  feet  in  length,  and  twenty  feet  in  width,  is  inter 
sected  by  walls  of  two  feet  high  ;  at  the  distance  of  every 
four  feet  these  walls  are  bound  together  by  arches  of  one 
brick  thick,  and  on  these  arches  the  coals  and  bituminous 
slate  are  spread. 

"  The  space  below  the  arches  is  filled  up  with  the  residue 
from  the  retorts. 

"  The  coals  or  bituminous  slate,  when  dried,  are  distilled 
in  retorts  which  are  so  far  different  from  those  used  at  the 
gas-works,  that  the  pipes  for  letting  out  the  produce  of 
distillation  are  on  the  opposite  ends  to  those  where  the 
doors  are.  Over  each  fire  are  two  retorts,  each  by  prefer 
ence,  of  about  eight  feet  long,  and  two  leet  wide,  with  an 
opening  of  five  inches,  to  let  aut  the  produce  of  distillation. 
The  fire  runs  below  the  retorts  in  a  direction  from  front  to 
back,  the  fire-bars  only  extending  part  of  the  way.  I  pre 
fer  to  arrange  a  stack  consisting  of  eight  fires  and  sixteen 
retorts  around  one  chimney,  by  which  means  I  am  enabled 
to  lead  the  flame  from  one  fire  to  the  others,  and  by  that 
means  to  heat  the  retorts  by  a  graduated  heat. 

"  The  products  of  distillation  of  the  sixteen  retorts  meet 
together  in  one  iron  pipe  about  eighty  feet  long,  and  two 
feet  diameter,  which  is  surrounded  by  another,  so  that  cold 
water  can  run  between  the  two  pipes  for  cooling.  The 
gases,  after  having  passed  this  pipe,  enter  into  cylinders, 
about  twelve  feet  in  height  and  four  feet  in  diameter.  These 
cylinders  are  filled  with  iron  wire  chips.  The  gases,  after 
having  passed  the  cylinders,  pass  through  another  iron 
pipe,  forty  feet  high  into  the  air,  which  pipe,  to  regulate 
the  draught-,  is  furnished  with  a  regulator. 

"  It  is  important  that  the  produce  of  distillation  should 
not  be  conducted  so  as  to  produce  pressure  in  the  retorts. 


137 

"  The  produce  of  distillation  runs  into  a  general  reser 
voir,  and  the  reservoir  is  so  arranged  that  the  condensed 
productions  will  have  an  average  heat  of  30°  centigrade. 
The  oils  separate  themselves  here  from  the  ammoniacal 
water.  The  ammoniacal  water  is  thrown  over  the  cooled 
residue  of  the  drying  furnaces,  and  mixed  with  it,  which 
produces  a  very  good  manure.  The  tar,  after  being  sepa 
rated  from  ammonia,  is  distilled,  and  the  product  of  distil 
lation  is  cooled  by  the  means  of  a  lead  pipe,  standing  in  a 
cooling  apparatus,  the  water  for  cooling  being  kept  always 
lukewarm.  The  product  of  distillation  is  divided  into 
three  qualities :  No.  I.  from  the  beginning  of  the  distilla 
tion  to  0-865  specific  gravity.  No.  II.  from  0-865-0-900 
specific  gravity.  No.  III.  from  0-900-1-930  specific 
gravity. 

"  The  produce  No.  I.  is  mixed  with  sulphuric  acid  and 
hydrochloric  acid,  at  a  temperature  of  25°  centigrade. 
Three  hours  afterwards  the  oil  is  taken  off  and  washed 
with  a  solution  of  caustic  soda,  at  60°-  centigrade  :  it  is  left 
two  hours  and  then  separated  from  the  solution  and  dis 
tilled.  In  the  still  is  mixed  a  concentrated  solution  of  soda. 
After  the  distillation  the  oils  are  light  yellow,  and  give  an 
average  weight  of  0*815-0-825  specific  gravity.  To  cor 
rect  the  smell  I  wash  the  oils  again  with  sulphuric'  acid 
and  hydrochloric  acid,  separate  them  from  the  solution,  and 
wash  with  concentrated  solution  of  soda, 

"The  oil  No.  II.  is  treated  the  same  as  No.  I.,  but  with 
different  quantities  of  acids,  and  at  a  temperature  of  35° 
centigrade.  •  The  product,  after  the  distillation,  is  a  lighter 
oil. 

"  The  oil  No.  III.  is  the  product  for  the  preparation  of 
the  finest  oil  and  paraffin  candles.  The  oil  is  treated  with 
sulphuric  acid  and  hydrochloric  acid,  at  a  temperature  of 


138  WAGENMANN'S  PKOCESS. 

83°  centigrade,  and  allowed  to  stand  ;  it  is  then  separated 
from  the  acids,  and  washed  with  a  solution  of  soda,  at  a 
temperature  of  60°  centigrade,  and  distilled.  The  oil  con 
tains  paraffin,  and  is  taken  to  a  cool  cellar  at  an  ave 
rage  temperature  of  12°  centigrade,  where  it  remains  in 
iron  butts  for  eight  days.  After  this  time  the  paraffin  is 
separated  from  the  oil  by  means  of  a  centrifugal  machine 
and  cast  in  cakes,  and  pressed  in  a  cold  hydraulic  press ; 
afterwards  melted  and  mixed  with  sulphuric  acid,  then 
separated  and  washed  in  water ;  it  is  then  heated  and  cast 
in  cakes,  and  again  pressed  by  a  heated  press ;  after 
wards  again  melted  and  mixed  with  sulphuric  acid  at  a 
temperature  of  70°  centigrade ;  the  acid  is  drawn  off,  and 
the  paraffin  is  washed  in  water,  after  this  it  is  melted  with 
stearine." 

In  some  instances  the  retorts  are  placed  in  a  circle  around 
the  chimney,  and  two  of  them  are  heated  by  one  furnace. 
The  gaseous  products  of  the  distillation  are  conducted  into 
a  large  iron  pipe,  upon  which  a  stream  of  cold  water  plays 
constantly  to  produce  the.  necessary  condensation.  The 
uncondensed  gases  escape  at  the  end  of  the  condensing 
pjpe  and  are  lost.  The  oils  and  other  liquid  products  of 
the  distillation  flow  into  a  cistern,  whence  they  are  puniped 
for  purification. 

HaVing  been  separated  from  the  aqueous  products  the 
oils  are  submitted  to  the  purifying  process.  Some  chemists 
have  the  oils  mixed  with  four  per  cent,  of  sulphate  of  iron, 
in  cast  iron  cisterns,  supplied  with  agitators  worked  by 
machinery.  Next  the  charge  of  oil  is  distilled,  and  for 
this  purpose  various  expedients  have  been  resorted  to. 
Some  distil  in  vacuo,  others  employ  common,  or  superheated 
steam.  The  latter  obtains  the  preference,  especially  for 
the  heavy  oils. 


GERMAN   METHODS.  139 

The  distillate  is  usually  divided  into  two  parts.  The 
first  is  permitted  to  run  from  the  still  until  the  specific  gra 
vity  comes  up  to  O870.  The  second  part  embraces  all  the 
remainder  of  the  distillate.  The  first  part  is  then  agitated 
for  hours  with  six  per  cent,  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid, 
one-eighth  per  cent,  of  bichromate  of  potash,  and  one-half 
per  cent,  of  hydrochloric  acid.  The  second  part  is  treated 
in  the  same  manner,  except  that  the  sulphuric  acid  is 
increased  to  eight  per  cent.,  with  one-sixth  per  cent,  of 
bichromate  of  potash,  and  one  per  cent,  of  hydrochloric 
acid.  After  the  acid  impurities,  etc.,  have  subsided  they 
are  drawn  off  and  the  oils  are  agitated  two  hours  with  lye 
and  steam. 

The  oils  are  then  distilled,  great  care  being  taken  that 
they  should  not  u  boil  over."  By  this  mode  lamp  oils, 
heavy  oils,  and  paraffin  are  produced.  The  paraffin  is 
put  in, a  cool  place  and  allowed  to  crystallize  in  the  usual 
manner. 

At  Bitterfield  the  coal  is  broken  into  small  pieces  and 
distilled  in  elliptical  retorts  eight  feet  in  length.  The  dis 
charge  pipe  is  of  large  size  and  opposite  the  head  of  each 
retort.  Pressure  upon  the  material  while  it  is  undergoing 
distillation  is  avoided  as  much  as  possible.  The  purifica 
tion  consists  in  the  alternate  use  of  acids  and  solutions  of 
caustic  alkalies. 

Dr.  Vohl,  of  Bonn,  commences  the  distillation  of  paper 
coal  at  a  low  heat,  which  is  gradually  raised  up  to  a  red 
heat,  and  he  remarks  that  slates  containing  twenty-five  per 
cent,  of  water  yielded  the  largest  amount  of  oil.  The 
author  has  observed  the  same  fact  in  the  distillation  of  bitu 
minous  shales  imported  to  New  York  from  Pictou,  Nova 
Scotia.  When  the  retorts  are  first  charged  with  those 
shales,  steam  is  generated  from  the  water  contained  in  them. 


140 

With  the  steam  some  of  the  lighter  oi]s  are  distilled  over, 
and  with  it  condense.  The  effect  is  quite  similar  to  that 
produced  by  admitting  steam  into  the  retort  at  the  com 
mencement  of  the  decomposing  distillation.  In  both 
instances  the  quantity  of  oils  is  increased. 

Broomaris  Patent. — Among  the  list  of  patents  for  the 
purification  of  hydro-carbon  oils,  this  patent,  which  is 
dated  London,  February  28,  1856,  has  been  overlooked, 
with  several  others  of  equal  importance.  The  patent  is 
for  "  improvements  in  treating  bituminous  shale,  Boghead 
mineral,  and  other  like  schistose  bodies,  in  order  to  obtain 
various  commercial  products  therefrom." 

The  schistose  bodies  are  first  decomposed  in  common 
retorts.  The  receiver  is  placed  at  some  distance  from  the 
retorts,  and  receives  through  pipes  a  part  of  the  gas  gene 
rated  in  them.  Condensation  is  effected  in  refrigerating 
pipes  kept  cool  by  water.  The  oils  are  treated  in, agita 
tors,  or  purifiers  with  sulphuric  acid  and  caustic  soda,  and 
then  distilled  over  again.  The  light  oils  are  separated  from 
the  heavy  for  illuminating  purposes  by  distilling  them 
down  to  proof  32°  (Gay  Lussac's  Areometer),  all  that 
remains  is  separated  from  the  paraffin.  For  this  purpose 
the  heavy  oil  is  placed  in  refrigerators  with  double  bottoms 
and  exposed  to  a  low  temperature,  by  which  the  paraffin  is 
separated.  The  remainder  is  gathered  into  bags  and  sub 
jected  to  pressure,  to  remove  whatever  oil  it  may  contain.* 
The  products  represented  as  being  obtained  by  this  mode 
are — 

"1.  Essential  oil. 

"  2.  An  oil  for  lighting  purposes. 

"  3.  A  fatty,  unctuous  oil,  for  lubricating  machinery. 

*  Journal  of  Gas  Lighting  (London),  Sept.  16,  1856. 


BODMER'S  PATENT.  141 

"  4.  A  liquid  tar,  for  lubricating  purposes. 

"  5.  A  solid  tar. 

"6.  A  'black,'  which  may  be  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  printers'  ink. 

"  7.  A  '  black,'  having  the  properties  of  animal  black. 

11  8.  Paraffin. 

"  9.  Ammoniacal  water,  containing  six  per  cent,  of  liquid 
ammonia." 

Therels  some  obscurity  in  the  specification  of  this  patent; 
still  the  practical  manufacturer  will  readily  understand, 
from  the  above,  the  nature  of  the  process  employed. 

Bodmer's  patent  is  dated  London,  February  4th,  1856.* 

"  Tars  are  taken  which  have  been  produced  by  the  dis 
tillation  of  coal  at  a  high  temperature,  such  as  are  made  in 
the  manufacture  of  coal  gas.  This  tar,  being  the  cheapest 
at  present,  is  therefore  preferred ;  but  tars  produced  in  a 
similar  manner,  at  a  high  temperature,  from  shale,  peat, 
wood,  and  from  bones,  or  other  animal  substances,  will 
answer  the  purpose.  These  tars  are  placed  in  an  ordinary 
still,  into  which  the  bulb  of  a  thermometer  is  placed,  and 
connected  with  a  worm  immersed  in  water :  this  water  is 
kept  regularly  at  a  temperature  of  between  60°  and  80° 
Fah.,  throughout  all  the  distillations.  The  heat  of  the  still 
is  raised  by  fire ;  and  when  the  thermometer  in  it  rises  to 
300°  Fah.,  the  instrument  is  removed,  and  the  products  of 
distillation  above  200°  are  run  into  another  vessel,  and 
kept  separate  from  the  products  of  distillation  below  300°. 
The  latter  are  rejected  as  unfit  for  the  purpose.  The  tar  is 
distilled  to  dryness,  which  is  known  to  have  taken  place 
when  products  cease  to  run  from  the  condenser,  the  heat 
being  always  kept  up."  "  The  oil  obtained  from  the  coal 

*  Journal  of  Gas-Lighting  (London). 


142 

tar  is  purified  as  follows :  This  oil  is  put  into  a  leaden 
tank,  and  to  each  five  hundred  gallons  is  added  ten  gallons 
of  commercial  brown  sulphuric  acid,  of  strength  140° 
Twaddle,  or  about  700  specific  gravity,  and  they  are  well 
agitated  together  for  one  hour.  The  vitriol  is  allowed  to 
subside,  which  will  take  place  in  ten  or  twelve  hours,  and 
is  drawn  off  by  a  stop-cock  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the 
tank.  Another  ten  gallons  of  brown  sulphuric  acid  is 
theja  added  to  each  five  hundred  gallons  of  the"  oil,  and 
agitated  for  four  hours.  The  oil,  after  subsidence,  is 
removed  to  an  iron  vessel,  and  to  each  hundred  gallons  is 
added  ten  gallons  of  a  solution  of  caustic  soda,  marking 
70°  Twaddle,  or  weighing  IS-J  Ibs  to  the  gallon.  These 
are  agitated  together  thoroughly  for  ten  or  twelve  hours  ; 
and  it  is  preferred  to  keep  the  temperature  of  the  oil  in  this 
tank  up  to  80°  Fah.,  both  during  the  agitation  with  the 
caustic  soda  and  afterwards,  for  ten  or  twelve  hours.  The 
clear  oil  is  then  removed  into  a  still,  and  to  each  hundred 
gallons  is  added  about  twenty  Ibs.  of  the  soda  ash  of  com 
merce,  20  Ibs.  of  slacked  lime,  and  four  gallons  of  water, 
or  40  Ibs.  of  caustic  solution  of  soda,  marking  70°  Twad 
dle — or  by  measure,  three  gallons,  weighing  13|  Ibs.  to  the 
gallon,  are  taken  for  each  hundred  gallons  of  oil  put  into 
the  still,  and  heat  is  applied.  In  general,  no  oil  will  come 
over  until  the  heat  of  the  still  has  reached  300°  Fah. ;  but 
if  any  should  come  below  this  temperature,  it  is  rejected. 
When  about  eighty  per  cent,  of  the  oil  put  into  the  still 
has  been  obtained,  the  process  is  stopped.  The  product  of 
distillation  is  the  improved  lubricating -oil,  which  is  named 
'  new  tar  oil.'  It  may  be  used  either  by  itself  or  mixed 
with  other  oils,  fats,  greases,  and  soaps.'7 

P.  Gr.  Barry  places  the  oils  in  wooden  tanks  lined  with 
lead.     In  these  tanks  the  oils  are  agitated  with  five  per 


BANCROFT'S  PATENT.  143 

cent,  of  their  weight  of  sulphuric  acid,  during  a  period  of 
three  hours.  After  the  acid  and  impurities  have  settled, 
the  oils  are  drawn  off  into  a  second  purifying  vessel,  and 
there  agitated  with  five  per  cent,  of  their  weight  of  caustic 
alkali,  or  with  lime  water  sufficient  to  remove  all  the  acid 
present  in  them.  After  the  alkaline  mixture  has  subsided 
the  oils  are  again  distilled. 

Bancroft  obtained  an  English  patent  for  the  distillation  of 
hydro-carbon  oils  from  the  petroleum  of  Burmah.  He 
admits  high  pressure  steam  at  fifty  Ibs.  to  the  square  inch 
into  his  stills,  and  places  a  fire  beneath  them  until  all  the 
eupion  is  distilled  over.  This  part  of  the  distillate  being 
removed,  the  fire  beneath  the  still  is  increased,  and  the 
steam  forced  on,  until  about  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  charge 
is  distilled  off.  At  the  close  of  the  operation  much  paraf 
fin  appears,  which  renders  it  necessary  that  the  condensing 
pipes  should  be  kept  at  a  temperature  not  less  than  90° 
Fah.  In  several  instances  the  cooling  down  of  the  con 
densing  apparatus  has  led  to  the  bursting  of  the  still. 

A  process  is  recorded  in  Le  Genie  Industrie!,  and  repre 
sented  as  being  the  invention  of  Messrs.  Dumoulin  & 
Cotelle,  by  which  the  heavy  coal  oils  are  made  to  burn  in 
lamps  without  smoke  or  odor.  In  a  close  vessel  they 
place  one  hundred  Ibs.  of  crude  coal  oil,  twenty-five  quarts 
of  water,  one  Ib.  of  the  chloride  of  lime,  and  one  half  Ib. 
oxide  of  manganese.  The  mixture  is  thoroughly  agitated. 
After  a  repose  of  twenty-four  hours  the  clear  oil  is  decanted 
and  distilled.  Next  the  one  hundred  Ibs.  of  coal  oil  are 
mixed  with  twenty-five  Ibs.  of  rosin  oil,  and  this  is  con 
sidered  the  best  part  of  their  mode.  This  last  mixture  may 
be  distilled  if  necessary.  From  the  high  per  centage  of 
carbon  in  the  heavy  coal  oil,  and  also  in  the  rosin  oil,  it 
will  appear  theoretically  that  this  mixture  cannot  burn 


144  NUMBER  OF  PATENTS. 

without  smoking  in  any  of  the  ordinary  coal  oil  lamps,  and 
this  is  found  to  be  the  fact  in  practice.  In  an  argand  lamp 
with  a  short-topped  wick,  and  a  button  over  the  inner  air 
tube,  or  in  the  camphene  lamp,  the  above  oil  will  burn 
with  a  short  flame  and  brilliant  light,  and  so  also  will  the 
rosin  oil,  or  the  heavy  oil,  mixed  or  unmixed ;  but  those 
lamps  are  rapidly  falling  into  disuse,  being  supplanted  by 
the  kerosene,  or  coal  oil  lamp. 

It  has  been  already  stated  that  upwards  of  one  hundred 
patents  have  been  granted  for  alleged  new  methods  of 
manufacturing  and  rectifying  oils  distilled  from  coals  and 
other  bituminous  mineral  substances  ;  and  upwards  of  forty 
patents  have  been  issued  for  retorts  and  other  apparatus  con 
nected  with  this  branch  of  industry.  A  description  of  the 
various  methods  and  similarities  of  operation,  with  the 
extraordinary  and  unphilosophical  fancies  set  forth  in  some 
of  those  patents,  would  not  interest  the  practical  man  nor 
the  general  reader.  The  extracts  drawn  from  the  foregoing 
patents  have  therefore  been  deemed  sufficient  for  this  brief 
technological  treatise,  and  to  direct  the  manufacturer  of  oils 
to  the  valuable  discoveries  now  placed  at  his  hand. 

The  preceding  part  of  this  chapter  will  have  shown  that 
upon  a  few  leading,  and,  as  it  is  supposed,  essential  opera 
tions,  all  the  patentees  appear  to  agree.  Upon  non-essen 
tials  they  differ  as  widely  as  persons  do  in  matters  of  far 
higher  importance. 

It  is  conceded  at  the  present  time —      « 

1st,  That  the  crude  coal,  or  other  material,  must  first  be 
submitted  to  dry,  or  decomposing  distillation,  and  that  a 
moderate  degree  of  heat  will  produce  more  and  better  oils 
than  a  high  temperature. 

2d,  That  the  use  of  a  strong  acid  is  necessary  in  the  puri 
fication  of  such  oils. 


MODE   OF  MANUFACTUKE.  145 

3d,  That  the  acid  must  be  succeeded  by  the  use  of  an 
alkali. 

4th,  That  it  is  necessary  to  distil  the  oils  after  the  use  of 
the  acid  and  alkali. 

It  will  be  perceived  by  the  foregoing  extracts,  from 
patents  for  the  manufacture  and  purification  of  oils,  that 
distillation,  acids,  and  alkalies,  form  the  basis  of  every 
alleged  invention ;  but  upon  the  quantities,  the  modes  of 
application,  and  the  minor  details  of  working,  there  is  much 
disagreement;  and  persons  unskilled  in  chemical  science 
have  frequently  introduced  some  peculiar  mode  in  the 
application  of  those  agents,  to  give  novelty  to  their  patents, 
or  to  satisfy  their  employers  of  their  superior  skill. 

The  oils  from  different  coals  require  different  treatment. 
The  oils  of  Albert  coal  (asphaltum),  Boghead  and  Breck- 
enridge  coal  are  easily  purified ;  while  the  oils  from  the 
ordinary  American,  English,  and  Scotch  cannels,  require 
more  skill,  and  cost  more  to  bring  them  up  to  a  fair  stan 
dard  among  the  hydro-carbons  sold  in  the  market. 

The  author  has  made  more  than  two  thousand  experi 
ments  in  reference  to  the  manufacture  and  purification  of 
oils  distilled  from  coal,  petroleum,  and  other  materials. 
From  long  practice,  and  the  improvements  introduced  by 
others,  he  ventures  to  lay  the  following  plan  before  his 
•  readers,  as  being  generally  applicable  to  the  distilled  oils  of 
coal  and  bitumen.  Petroleum  will  be  noticed  in  the  sequel. 
Regarding  the  purification  of  those  oils,  the  present  is  the 
age  of  experiment.  Improvements  are  constantly  advanc 
ing,  and  some  time  may  elapse  before  their  manufacture 
is  brought  to  perfection,  and  the  distilled  hydro-carbon  oils 
attain  that  commercial  and  economic  value  they  are  destined 
to  reach. 


146  DISTILLERY   FOR   COAL   OILS. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

Buildings  and  Machinery. — Method  of  Manufacturing  and  Purifying  the  Oils 
distilled  from  Coals  and  other  Bituminous  Substances,  and  the  Products 
derived  therefrom. — Distilling  by  Steam. — Continual  Distillation. — Paraffin. 
— Lubricating  Oils. — Purification  of  Petroleum. — Petroleum  Refinery. — 
Estimate  of  Cost. — Hydrometer  and  Pyrometer. — Cements,  etc. 

DISTILLERY  FOR  COAL   OILS. 

BEFORE  any  suggestions  are  made  in  reference  to  a  proper 
mode  of  manufacturing  and  purifying  the  hydro-carbon 
oils,  the  construction  and  arrangement  of  the  manufactory 
itself  require  some  notice.  It  is  very  desirable,  in  all  cases, 
that  the  buildings  constituting  the  establishment  should  be 
constructed  of  stone  and  brick,  with  iron  roofs.  The  occu 
pation  of  wooden  buildings  is  unsafe ;  when  they  are 
employed,  great  care  is  necessary.  Every  preservative 
against  fire,  by  the  use  of  non-combustible  material  and  the 
command  of  water,  should  be  planned  for  at  the  onset  of 
construction. 

When  coal  is  to  be  distilled  in  retorts,  the  retort  house 
should  be  separated  from  the  distillery,  or  refining  house,  ' 
and  all  crude  materials  and  marketable  oils  should  be  kept 
in  separate  stores,  away  from  the  operating  part  of  the 
establishment.  Receivers  of  the  products  of  the  retorts  are 
advantageously  situated  underground.  A  steam  pump, 
communicating  with  cisterns  of  water,  and  supplied  with 
hose  capable  of  reaching  every  building,  should  be  always 
ready  for  action,  while  at  the  same  time  it  performs  the 
offices  required  by  the  manufactory. 


DISTILLERY   FOR   COAL   OILS.  147 

Between  the  stills  and  the  several  worm-tanks  and 
receivers  it  is  necessary  to  erect  a  strong  brick  or  stone 
wall,  through  which  the  connecting  pieces  between  the 
stills  and  the  worm  pass.  It  is  also  desirable  to  separate 
the  stills  one  from  the  other  by  partition  walls.  During 
the  distillation,  and  especially  at  its  commencement,  a  light 
hydro-carbon  vapor  frequently  escapes  at  the  lower  extre 
mity  of  the  condensing-pipe.  This  vapor  is  highly  inflam 
mable,  as  well  as  the  lighter  oils  that  accompany  it.  No 
fire  should,  therefore,  ever  be  permitted  in  the  body  of  the 
refinery. 

The  agitators  should  be  placed  at  convenient  heights  to 
permit  the  oils  to  flow  from  the  acid  cisterns  into  the  tanks 
where  they  are  to  be  washed  with  the  alkali,  and  to  run 
thence  into  the  stills.  A  good  arrangement  of  the  ma 
chinery  is  of  much  consequence ;  and,  above  all,  the  most 
rigid  cleanliness  should  be  observed  in  every  operation 
connected  with  the  manufactory.  An  abundant  supply  of 
clean,  fresh  water  is  absolutely  necessary. 

The  plan  and  sections  (pp.  148-149)  represent  approved 
arrangements  of  the  building  arid  apparatus  of  a  coal  oil 
distillery.  The  number  of  distillations  being  much  greater 
than  those  for  petroleum  refining,  it  requires  more  stills  to 
do  the  work.  The  agitators,  L,  are  in  number  three,  being 
one  extra  to  permit  of  repairs  to  the  others.  The  receivers, 
M,  are  vessels  in  which  the  crude  oil  pumped  from  the 
retort  vat  is  settled.  The  fourth  still,  E,  may  be  used 
as  a  rectifying  still  for  the  eupion.  The  transferring 
of  the  oil  from  vessel  to  vessel  is  effected  by  the  pumps,  J, 
when  their  levels  do  not  admit  of  drainage.  The  dimen-' 
sions  of  Petroleum  refinery,  E,  contained  in  the  estimate 
of  cost  will  serve  as  a  guide  to  the  builder.  In  the  stills 
there  should  be  room  allowed  for  the  ebullition  and  foaming; 


148 


DISTILLERY   FOR  COAL   OILS. 


Section  on  Line  C— D  of  Plan. 


Coal  Oil  Eefinery  Plan.— 600  gals.  Capacity  per  Diem. 


DISTILLERY   FOR   COAL   OILS. 


149 


six,  eight,  or  ten  inches  below  the  top  of  the  kettle,  or  that 
part  of  the  still  below  the  dome,  is  the  proper  line  for 
working  contents.  The  agitators  should  contain  the  pro 
posed  charge  of  oil,  and  fifteen  per  cent.  over.  The  cost  of 
the  work  may  be  estimated  from  that  of  the  Petroleum 
Refinery. 


Section  of  Broken  Line  A— B  of  Plan. 


REFERENCES. 

E.  Stills. 

P.  Drain. 

F.  Worms. 
G.  Worm  tanks. 

Q.  Chimney. 
R.  Water  pipe. 

11.  Hpiler. 

S.  Steam  pipe. 

I.    Knsrine. 

T.  Washer  gearing. 

J.   Steam  pump. 
K.  Still  furnace. 

U.  Pipe  from  agitators  to  stills. 
V.  Ventilators. 

L.  "Washers,  or  agitators. 

W.  Tail  pipes. 

M.  Receivers, 

X.  Still  house. 

N.  Market  tank. 

Y.  Refinery. 

O.  Syphon  of  still  pipe. 

Coals. — The  crude  oils  distilled  from  coals  differ  greatly 
in  yield  and  in  quality.     It  will  be  observed  in  the  table 


150  MACHINERY   FOR  COAL   OIL   DISTILLERY. 

given  in  a  preceding  chapter,  that  a  few  varieties  will  pro 
duce  over  a  hundred  gallons  per  ton.  Some  cannels  will 
not  yield  over  fifty,  and  others  thirty  gallons  per  ton. 
The  qualities  of  the  crude  oils  also  differ.  Some  afford 
large  quantities  of  paraffin,  or  heavy  oil,  and  but  a  small 
percentage  of  lamp  oil.  Others  yield  much  eupion.  In 
the  purchase  of  coal  lands,  or  coal  for  the  manufacture  of 
hydro-carbon  oils,  an  accurate  test  of  the  coal  is  necessary. 
Coal  oil  works  have  been  erected  at  coal  mines,  where  the 
coal  itself  is  almost  worthless  for  oil-making. 

Bitumens. — The  preceding  remarks  are  also  applicable  to 
asphaltums  and  bitumens.  The  tars  of  candle  manufac 
tories  also  give  different  results,  and  yield  some  heavier  and 
some  lighter  oils. 

Retorts. — Different  retorts  also  produce  different  results. 
When  the  discharge-pipe  is  high,  there  will  be  less  crude 
oil ;  but  the  oil  will  be  lighter  and  purer.  Pressure  upon 
the  charge  and  its  vapors  during  distillation  will  diminish 
the  yield  ;  and  where  the  condensation  is  imperfect,  a  part 
of  the  lighter  oils  will  escape  with  the  gas.  The  revolving 
retort  has  the  advantage  of  distilling  coals  and  shales  in 
less  than  half  the  time  required  for  stationary  retorts.  The 
yield  is  also  large ;  but  the  crude  oil  is  impure  from  the 
quantity  of  dust  produced  by  the  agitation  of  the  material 
during  its  dry  distillation.  More  important  than  all  is  the 
amount  of  heat  applied,  which  should,  as  an  ordinary  rule, 
not  exceed  800°  Fah.  Before  the  coal,  asphaltum,  or  any 
bitumen  is  thrown  info  the  retort,  it  is  advantageous  to 
break  it  into  small  pieces.  Large  masses  seldom  discharge 
all  the  volatile  matter  from  their  central  parts. 

Condensers. — By  removing  the  heat  that  attends  the 
vapors  and  gases  produced  by  distillation,  their  particles 
are  brought  into  closer  proximity,  and  all  pass  from  the 


RECEIVERS  AND   CONDENSERS.  151 

gaseous  into  the  liquid  or  solid  state,  except  the  permanent 
gas,  which  is  incapable  of  condensation  by  ordinary  means. 
Condensers  are  usually  metallic  worms  immersed  in  water, 
which  is  kept  at  the  desired  temperature  by  the  admission 
of  cold  water.  It  is  quite  immaterial  whether  the  con 
denser  is  a  long  metallic  pipe,  a  series  of  pipes,  or  an  open 
chamber,  if  it  be  of  sufficient  dimensions,  and  kept  at  a  low 
temperature. 

Receivers — at  coal  oil  manufactories — are  tanks,  usually 
sunk  in  the  earth,  to  allow  a  descent  of  the  oils  from 
the  condensers.  They  should  be  closely  covered,  to  pre 
vent  the  evaporation  of  the  lighter  oils,  which,  in  warm 
weather,  is  very  rapid.  The  gas  which  remains  uncon- 
densed  should  be  conveyed  to  a  gasometer,  and  there  stored 
for  fuel,  or  it  may  be  purified  in  the  manner  of  ordinary 
coal  gas,  and  employed  for  lighting.  In  general  the  gas  is 
allowed  to  escape,  especially  where  fuel  for  the  manufac 
tory  is  cheap.  It  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  distilktion 
of  oils,  and,  with  proper  burners,  a  high  degree  of  heat 
may  be  obtained. 

Precipitation  or  settling. — With  the  crude  oils  that  flow 
into  the  receiving  tank  there  is  always  a  quantity  of  water, 
or  ammoniacal  liquid  combined  with  some  carbonaceous 
matter  and  other  impurities.  When  the  coal,  or  other 
material  distilled  in  the  retorts,  is  very  moist,  the  water  in 
the  receiver  will  sometimes  amount  to  twenty  per  cent,  of 
the  distillate.  To  remove  those  impurities  it  is  most  advan 
tageous  to  pump  the  whole  into  a  second  receiver,  or  tank, 
which  should  be  elevated  a  little  above  the  working  level 
of  the  stills  it  is  designed  for. 

The  crude  oils  and  their  impurities  should  next  be  heated 
up,  by  means  of  a  steam  coil  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the 

tank,  to  90°  or  100°  Fah.     The  ammoniacal  water  arid 

11 


152  TREATMENT   OF   CRUDE   COAL   OILS. 

the  impurities  soluble  in  water  will  then  settle,  and  may  be 
readily  drawn  off.  \ 

Ammonia. — When  the  ammonia  present  in  the  water  is 
sufficient  in  quantity  to  pay  the  cost  and  a  profit  upon  its 
separation,  it  may  be  neutralized  by  the  application  of 
sulphuric  or  muriatic  acid,  and  the  solution  evaporated  to 
obtain  sulphate,  or  muriate  of  ammonia,  or  it  may  be  pro 
fitably  employed  in  combination  with  other  manures  for 
a  fertilizer.  The  carbonaceous  matter  that  forms  a  stratum 
between  the  crude  oils  and  the  water  is  worthless  unless  it 
be  used  in  the  preparation  of  artificial  fuel. 


TREATMENT   OF  THE   CRUDE   COAL   OILS. 

The  crude  oils,  being  separated  from  their  impurities, 
may  at  once  be  submitted  to  chemical  treatment ;  but  as  a 
general  rule,  and  especially  when  they  are  heavy  and  con 
tain  much  tar,  they  should  be  first  distilled.  This  distilla 
tion  is  made  in  a  common  iron  still,  protected  from  the 
action  of  the  fire  by  fire  brick,  which  equalizes  the  heat, 
consequently  the  expansion  of  the  metal,  and  lessens  the 
risk  of  fracture. 

The  "  charge"  of  oil  prepared  as  above,  may  be  run  into 
the  still  and  distilled  without  the  use  of  steam.  But  when 
it  has  been  "  run  off"  to  four-fifths  of  the  whole  quantity, 
or  when  the  part  remaining  in  the  still  will  be  a  thick 
pitch  when  cold,'  common  steam  should  be  gently  let  into 
the  neck,  or  breast  of  the  still.  The  steam  immediately  pro 
duces  an  outward  current  through  the  condensing  apparatus 
and  brings  over  all  the  remaining  part  of  the  oils,  leaving 
a  compact  coke  as  the  only  residuum.  Furthermore,  it 
gradually  diminishes  the  heat  of  the  iron  and  prevents  it 


TREATMENT  OF  CRUDE  COAL   OILS.  153 

from  breaking.  When  the  steam  is  thus  let  in,  the  fire  is 
to  be  removed  from  beneath  the  still. 

Continual  Distillation. — In  the  first  distillation  of  the 
crude  oils,  as  they  come  from  the  retorts,  and  in  subsequent 
ones,  the  oils  may  be  slowly  admitted  into  the  still  after  it 
has  become  sufficiently  heated  and  the  oils  begin  to  flow 
freely  from  the  worm,  or  condenser.  By  the  adjustment  of 
a  cock,  a  stream  of  the  crude  product  may  be  permitted  to 
flow  through  an  iron  tube  into  the  still  while  it  is  in  ope 
ration.  The  tube  should  dip  beneath  the  oil  in  the  still, 
the  inflow  of  oil  into  which  must  not  exceed  the  out-flow 
from  the  condenser.  A  greater  amount  of  heat  will  be 
required  for  this  operation  than  for  the  common  method,  as 
much  of  it  is  taken  up  by  the  cold  oil  constantly  flowing 
inwards.  By  this  mode  a  still  working  1000  gallons  may 
be  made  to  ran  double  that  quantity  without  interruption, 
and  steam  may  be  applied  in  any  manner  before  described, 

The  first  distillate. — The  first  distillate  of  the  crude  oil 
should  be  separated  into  two  parts,  each  of  which  requires 
somewhat  different  treatment.  The  first  part  is  that  which 
distils  over  from  the  commencement  of  the  run  until  the 
oils  in  the  receiver  have  a  proof  of  36°  by  hydrometer,  or 
a  specific  gravity  of  0*843. 

These  light  hydro-carbons  and  the  eupion  they  contain 
form  the  lamp  oil.  The  quantity  produced  will  depend 
upon  the  quality  of  the  oil,  or  other  material,  whence  they 
have  been  derived.  This  part  of  the  distillate  being 
pumped  from  the  receiving  tank;,  or  otherwise  removed,  the 
remainder,  or  second  part,  is  allowed  to  flow  on  until  it 
assumes  a  greenish  color  at  the  end  of  the  worm  pipe,  when 
steam,  if  not  previously  employed,  may  be  let  into  the  still 
and  continued  until  the  whole  distillation  is  completed  ;  the 
fire  in  the  furnace  beneath  the  still  being  withdrawn.  A 


154  TREATMENT   OF   THE   FIRST   DISTILLATE. 

quantity  of  coke  will  be  found  to  remain,  amounting  to  ten 
or  fifteen  per  cent,  of  the  whole  charge.  This  coke  is 
excellent  fuel,  and  after  all  its  volatile  matter  has  been 
expelled  it  may  be  employed  in  the  clarification  of  sugar. 
When  steam  is  not  employed  the  residuum  in  the  still 
must  not  be  run  down  lower  than  a"  thick  pitch.  Coking 
in  the  still  without  steam  is  unsafe  and  hazardous  to  the 
iron. 

The  first  part  is  then  to  be  placed  in  an  iron  cistern  and 
therein  thoroughly  agitated  from  one  to  two  hours,  with 
from  four  to  ten  per  cent,  of  sulphuric  acid,  the  object 
being  to  bring  every  particle  of  the  impurities  in  contact 
with  the  acid.  The  quantity  of  acid  to  be  used  depends 
upon  the  character  of  the  oils  and  the  coal,  heat,  &c., 
employed  in  the  retorts. 

If  too  much  acid  is  applied  the  oils  will  be  partially 
charred  and  discolored  ;  if  too  little,  the  impurities  will  not 
be  oxidated,  and  the  oils  will  change  color.  After  the  agi 
tation  of  the  oil  and  acid  is  completed,  the  mixture  must 
remain  at  rest  from  six  to  eight  hours,  when  the  acid,  with 
the  chief  part  of  the  impurities,  will  have  settled  to  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel.  They  are  then  to  be  drawn  off,  and 
the  remaining  oil  to  be  washed  with  ten  or  twenty  per  cent, 
of  water.  The  water  removes  a  part  of  the  remaining 
acid,  and  carries  off  the  soluble  impurities.  The  acid  now 
appears  in  the  form  of  tar,  and  may  afterwards  be  separated 
from  the  impurities  for  further  use.  After  the  water  is 
withdrawn  the  charge  is  to  be  agitated  two  hours  with  from 
five  to  ten  per  cent,  by  measure,  of  a  solution  of  caustic 
potash,  or  soda  of  specific  gravity  of  1*400.  The  hydrates 
of  those  alkalies  may  be  used  in  the  same  manner ;  but  the 
solution  of  caustic  soda  is  generally  preferred.  Like  the 
acid,  the  strength  and  quantity  of  the  alkali  must  be  varied 


PURIFICATION   FOR  MARKET.  155 

according  to  the  quality  of  the  oils.  After  a  repose  of  six 
hours  or  more,  the  alkali  is  to  be  withdrawn  from  the  oil, 
and  any  further  impurities  rendered  soluble,  by  its  applica 
tion,  washed  out  with  water.  After  the  use  of  the  water 
the  oil  should  be  perfectly  neutral.  When  the  water  is 
withdrawn  from  it,  it  is  to  be  run  into  a  still  for  final  rec 
tification.  Should  any  acid  still  remain  in  the  charge,  it 
may  be  distilled  over  two  or  four  per  cent,  of  the  alkaline 
solution,  or  an  equivalent  quantity  of  lime,  or  soda  ash 
with  or  without  water.  During  the  whole  of  these  opera 
tions  the  oils  and  the  several  washes  applied  to  them  are 
to  be  kept  at  a  temperature  not  lower  than  90°  Fah.  This 
is  conveniently  done  by  means  of  steam  coils  fixed  at  the 
bottoms  of  the  tanks  in  which  the  agitations  are  made. 
The  agitator  employed  may  be  of  any  kind,  if  its  action  is 
efficient.  Finally  the  oil  is  to  be  carefully  distilled,  with 
or  without  steam.  A  small  quantity  of  the  lightest  pro 
duct  or  eupion,  which  comes  first  from  the  condensing 
worm,  is  usually  discolored,  and  may  therefore  be  trans 
ferred  to  the  succeeding  charge. 

The  last  distillation  should  be  made  slowly  and  with 
care,  avoiding  all  fluctuations  produced  by  an  unsteady 
heat.  If  desired,  the  eupion  may  be  taken  off  at  the  com 
mencement  of  the  distillation.  It  should  be  at  proof  60°, 
or  specific  gravity,  0*733,  or  it  may  be  allowed  to  run  in 
with  the  lamp  oil.  When  the  distillate  has  reached  proof 
40°,  or  specific  gravity  0*819,  the  remainder  is  to  be  trans 
ferred  to  the  next  charge,  or  the  heavy  oil,  as  being  too 
dense  for  illuminating  purposes. 

The  mixed  oils  intended  for  lamps  have  their  disagreea 
ble  odor  chiefly  removed  by  allowing  them  to  remain  in 
flat  open  cisterns  over  .weak  solutions  of  the  alkalies  during 
a  period  of  some  days.  Light  also  improves  their  color. 


156  TREATMENT   OF   PARAFFIN. 

The  alkalies  employed  in  the  foregoing  treatment  may  be 
restored  and  used  in  subsequent  purifications. 

The  oils  of  the  second  or  heavy  part  of  the  first  distil 
late  are  purified  by  the  same  means  as  described  for  the 
lighter  oils,  except  that  they  require  the  application  of 
more  acid  and  stronger  alkalies.  All  the  oils  distilled  from 
them  at  proof  40°  are  to  be  added  to  the  lamp  oils.  At  the 
close  of  each  distillation,  and  as  the  oils  acquire  greater 
density,  the  color  grows  darker  and  changeable,  finally  they 
are  partially  charred,  and  especially  when  they  have  been 
distilled  without  steam.  These  dark-colored  oils  may 
always  be  renovated  by  the  use  of  acids  and  alkalies,  the 
permanganates  of  potash  and  soda,  and,  finally,  by  distil 
lation.  The  color  of  the  lamp  oils  should  not  exceed  a 
tinge  of  greenish  yellow,  when  viewed  in  a  clear  glass  flask 
six  inches  in  diameter.  If  by  accident,  carelessness,  or 
negligence,  the  oils  treated  by  the  foregoing  method  should 
be  impure,  they  must  be  submitted  to  washing  and  redistil 
lation. 

PARAFFIN. 

In  general  all  the  oils  below  35°  contain  more  or  less 
paraffin ;  below  30°  the  paraffin  is  still  more  abundant. 
When  the  whole  process  has  been  well  conducted  those  oils 
are  to  be  placed  in  tanks  in  cool  situations  (thermometer  at 
40°  and  lower) ;  the  paraffin  will  then  crystallize  on  the 
sides  of  the  tanks  in  beautiful  white  silvery  scales,  from 
which  the  still  liquid  oils  may  be  withdrawn. 

MODE   OF   REFINING   PARAFFIN. 

The  crude  paraffin  should  be  put  into  bags  and  sub 
mitted  to  pressure  in  a  lard-oil  press,  or  one  which  will 


TREATMENT   OF   PARAFFIN.  157 

gradually  squeeze  out  the  oil.  It  should  then  be  pressed 
in  a  stearine  press,  cold,  and  all  the  oil  remaining  should 
be  removed  from  it. 

The  paraffin  is  then  melted  in  a  wooden  tank  lined  with 
lead,  and  furnished  with  a  lead  or  iron  steam  coil  in  its 
bottom.  One-half  the  weight  of  the  paraffin  of  strong 
sulphuric  acid  is  added  and  kept  stirred  up  with  it  for 
four  hours,  and  it  is  then  permitted  to  settle  for  eight  hours 
at  a  temperature  of  190°  Fah.  The  acids  and  impurities 
are  then  drawn  off  and  the  paraffin  permitted  to  cool.  It 
is  then  again  pressed  in  the  stearine  press,  and  again  melted 
in  a  steam  heated  vessel,  in  which  it  is  agitated  for  three 
hours  with  a  weak  solution  of  caustic  soda,  when  it  is 
permitted  to  settle  for  six  hours.  The  soda  solution  is  then 
drawn  off  and  the  paraffin  allowed  to  cool,  when  it  is  fit 
for  moulding  into  candles  upon  being  again  melted. 

The  above  process  is  effective  when  the  crude  paraffin 
does  not  contain  an  unusual  amount  of  impurities.  When 
it  is  very  impure  the  treatment  with  acid  and  solution  of 
soda  must  be  repeated,  using  less  of  the  acid  for  the  second 
treatment.  In  this  case,  as  in  the  purification  of  coal  and 
petroleum  oils,  it  is  difficult  to  fix  the  exact  quantity  of 
the  reagents  to  be  used.  Crude  paraffin  differs  in  quantity, 
some  being  quite  white  and  pure,  and  other  samples  being 
black  and  heavy  with  tar  and  impurities. 

The  heavy  pils,  and  those  which  drain  from  the  paraffin, 
are  excellent  lubricators.  They  may  be  mixed  with  ani 
mal  oils  when  it  is  desirable  to  give  them  greater  consist 
ence.  As  they  do  not  readily  oxidate  when  exposed  to 
the  air,  they  are  peculiarly  applicable  as  lubricants.  The 
gumming  complained  of  by  machinists  arises  from  the  oxi 
dation  of  the  oils  they  have  heretofore  employed  to  relieve 
friction. 


158  PURIFICATION   OF   PETROLEUM. 

These  heavy  hydro-carbons,  and  even  the  solid  paraffin 
itself,  may  be  decarbonized  and  rendered  suitable  for  lamps. 
Just  in  proportion  to  the  amount,  or  number  of  the  equiva 
lents  of  carbon  withdrawn  from  them,  so  are  their  boiling 
points  lowered  and  their  specific  gravities  diminished. 

PURIFICATION  OF  PETROLEUM. 

The  usual  method  practised  by  refiners  of  petroleum  is 
as  follows : — 

The  petroleum  is  permitted  to  settle  out  water  and  impu 
rities  at  a  temperature  of  90°  F.,  and  is  then  pumped  into 
an  iron  still,  such  as  have  been  described,  when  it  is  slowly 
and  carefully  distilled  over  open  fire.  Ten  to  twenty  per 
cent,  of  the  charge  of  crude  oil  is  usually  taken  from  it  as 
naphtha.  The  remainder  is  distilled  as  low  as  possible,  to 
give  the  greatest  yield  of  lamp  oil,  which  should  not 
vaporize  under  115°  or  120°  Fah.  The  residuum  is  made 
use  of  as  mentioned  in  the  second  chapter.  The  lamp  oil, 
which  is  usually  75  to  85  per  cent,  of  the  charge,  is  next 
well  agitated  with  1-|  to  2  per  cent,  or  1-J-  to  2  gallons  of 
sulphuric  acid  to  the  hundred  gallons  of  the  distillate,  and 
permitted  to  settle  for  several  hours.  The  acid  and  impu 
rities  are  then  drawn  off.  It  is  then  agitated  with  water 
to  remove  the  acid,  and  finally  with  three  per  cent,  or  three 
gallons  to  100  gallons  of  the  charge,  of  a  solution  of  caus 
tic  alkali  made  as  follows : — One  gallon  soda  ash,  half  a 
gallon  of  fresh-slacked  lime,  five  gallons  of  water,  boiled 
twenty  minutes  in  a  kettle  with  steam  jacket  or  over 
fire,  and  used  at  a  specific  gravity  of  T300  or  36°  by 
Baume's  hydrometer.  It  is  hardly  possible  to  give  the 
exact  quantities  of  the  reagents.  The  refiner  may  vary 
them  to  suit  the  petroleum  to  be  treated. 


PURIFICATION   OF   PETROLEUM.  159 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  refining  of  petroleum  is  a 
very  much  cheaper  process  than  the  procuring  of  oil  from 
coal.  Distillation  over  carbonate  of  soda  has  been  found 
advantageous  in  some  cases.  Distillation  by  superheated 
steam  can  be  recommended  for  its  causing  the  oils  to  distil 
over  in  a  whiter  and  purer  condition  than  when  obtained 
by  open  fire.  It  is  safe  and  perfectly  under  control,  and 
is  now  used  very  largely  in  Great  Britain  for  distilling 
shales  and  also  for  petroleum  refining. 

In  distilling  bv  superheated  steam,  it  must  be  remem 
bered  that,  although  the  heating  pipes  are  at  a  temperature 
which  would  cause  the  steam,  if  confined,  to  burst  them, 
it  is  not  confined,  but  has  a  free  passage  into  the  still  by 
means  of  the  perforated  pipe.  Of  course,  if,  by  accident, 
the  inlet  valve  became  stopped,  and  the  still  exit  closed  at 
the  same  time,  the  superheater  would  be  destroyed — but 
there  is  hardly  a  chance  that  either  of  those  two  things 
could  occur. 

In  refining  Canada  petroleum  a  larger  percentage  of  acid 
is  used  than  in  treating  the  Pennsylvania  petroleum,  but 
the  process  is,  with  that  exception,  the  same.  The  odor  of 
crude  Canada  petroleum  is  very  offensive.  This  may  be 
removed  by  adding  nitric  acid  to  the  oil,  in  the  proportion 
of  one  pint  of  acid  to  one  hundred  gallons  of  oil,  and  at  the 
same  time  adding  one  gallon  of  chloride  of  lime.  The  oil 
must  be  well  stirred  and  settled.  This  process  removes 
the  odor  as  far  as  the  oil  is  concerned,  when  it  is  not  being 
distilled.  Nitric  acid,  or  traces  of  it,  would  be  very  harm 
ful  in  distillation,  and  the  original  odor  would  return. 
After  the  petroleum  has  been  refined,  the  addition  of  the 
above  quantities  of  nitric  acid  and  chloride  of  lime,  and 
thorough  agitation,  will  for  the  greater  part  remove  the 
odor  of  the  refined  oil. 


160  PURIFICATION   OF   PETROLEUM. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  refine  petroleum  by 
filtration,  or  by  agitation  with  various  chemicals.  A  filter 
of  bone-black  will  remove  the  color  in  some  degree,  but 
it  would  be  too  expensive  a  process  on  the  large  scale, 
even  were  it  to  render  the  oil  of  a  uniform  gravity  of 
819,  or  proof  40°  Baume — a  thing  which  it  cannot 
do.  Oxalic  ether  exercises  a  bleaching  effect  upon  petro 
leum,  but  it  does  not  render  it  fit  for  lamps,  and  would  be 
very  expensive.  It  is  doubtful  whether  any  mode  other 
than  distillation  will  ever  be  found  practicable  in  the  puri 
fying  of  petroleum  oils.  Those  persons  interested  in  petro 
leum  should  be  very  cautious  in  embarking  in  any  new- 
mode  of  refining  petroleum.  Nothing  but  the  most  abso 
lute  demonstration  of  the  practicability  of  a  new  process 
could  satisfy  tbfc  author  that  anything  except  distillation 
can  separate  the  naphtha,  burning  oil,  and  heavy  oil,  as  his 
experiments  in  the  direction  of  any  other  process,  though 
they  number  several  hundreds,  have  so  far  been  productive 
of  no  practical  result. 

In  refining  petroleum  or  coal  oils,  care  should  be  taken 
that  the  acid  used  be  wholly  removed  by  the  alkali  or 
water  washing ;  many  samples  of  petroleum  oil  are  found 
to  contain  sulphuric  acid  in  sufficient  quantity  to  produce 
a  most  disagreeable  and  dangerous  quantity  of  sulphurous 
acid  gas  in  burning.  This  has  been  noticed  by  physicians 
upon  visiting  patients  in  the  country,  where  the  oil  is 
most  used.  The  atmosphere  of  the  sick  room  is  very  soon 
made  poisonous  by  the  gas  evolved  by  the  night-lamp. 
Sulphurous  acid  gas  is  very  irritating  to  the  lungs  and 
mucous  membrane.  The  presence  of  sulphuric  acid  in  the 
oil  may  be  detected  by  adding  a  solution  of  chloride  of 
barium  to  the  oil,  when  a  white  precipitate  will  fall  if  any 
acid  be  present. 


PETROLEUM  REFINERY.  161 

A  piece  of  white  blotting  paper  moistened  with  a  solu 
tion  of  iodic  acid  and  starch,  held  over  the  flame  of  the 
lamp,  will  become  bluish-purple  if  sulphurous  acid  gas  is 
being  produced  by  the  combustion.  This  test,  however, 
may  not  always  be  correct,  as  iodine  may  be  set  free  by 
other  deoxidizing  agents  produced  by  combustion.  The 
chloride  of  barium  is,  however,  perfectly  reliable. 


PETROLEUM   REFINERY. 

The  drawings  on  pages  162  and  163  represent  a  convenient 
arrangement  of  apparatus  for  refining  petroleum.  The 
superheated  steam  apparatus  may  be  employed,  or  not,  at 
the  option  of  the  refiner.  If  it  is  employed,  the  mode  of 
operation  would  be  as  follows  : — 

The  still,  A,  is  filled  to  within  six  inches  of  the  top  to 
which  the  dome  is  bolted,  by  the  pump,  B,  which  draws 
the  petroleum  from  the  settler, -E,  in  which  is  a  coil  of  inch 
iron  steam-pipe,  to  keep  the  temperature  of  the  settler  at 
90°  Fah.  The  settler  is  filled  from  the  underground 
receiver,  D,  by  the  pump,  B.  This  underground  receiver 
is  so  arranged  as  to  receive  the  petroleum  from  barrels 
being  rolled  over  it  and  emptied. 

The  still  being  charged  and  the  superheater  having  a  fire 
under  it  which  would  give  the  steam  a  temperature  of  300° 
Fah.,  the  drip  cock  of  the  superheater  (see  cut  on  page  86) 
is  opened,  to  permit  any  water  or  moist  steam  to  escape, 
and  afterwards  the  steam  valve  communicating  with  the 
superheater  is  opened  gradually,  and  the  steam  permitted 
to  pass  into  the  still  by  the  pipe,  E,  which  is  a  two-inch 
wrought  iron  pipe  bent  under  the  dome,  carried  down  the 
side  of  the  still,  coiled  twice  around  the  bottom  of  the  still, 
and  perforated  with  holes  not  less  than  one-eighth  inch  in 


162 


PETROLEUM   REFINERY. 


Petroleum  Kefinery.    Plan. 

diameter.  As  the  hot  steam  enters  the  still  there  will  be, 
for  some  time,  a  considerable  condensation.  This  can  be 
remedied  by  having  a  gentle  fire  under  the  still,  but  it  is 
not  absolutely  necessary,  as  a  still  set  in  sand  will  soon 
become  heated  to  the  proper  point.  The  worm  tub,  I, 
must  be  abundantly  supplied  with  cold  water  from  the 
water-tank  outside  the  building,  or  by  a  pump.  The  inlet 
to  the  tub  should  be  at  the  bottom  and  the  overflow  at  the 
top,  by  which  the  hot  water  can  be  carried  away  to  the 
drain,  or  to  a  vessel  from  which  it  can  be  pumped  into  the 
boilers.  A  great  economy  of  heat  can  be  effected  by 
making  use  of  hot  instead  of  cold  water  for  feeding  the 
boilers.  The  distillate  comes  over  about  half  water.  As 
it  proceeds,  the  heat  under  the  superheater  is  increased, 
and  more  steam,  at  a  pressure  of  40  Ibs.  in  the  boiler,  is 


PETROLEUM   REFINERY. 


163 


noon 
on 


Elevation. 


$£CT/  ON  ON    LINE  C-D 


164:  REFINING   BY   SUPERHEATED  STEAM. 

passed  into  the  still.  At  the  close  of  the  distillation,  the 
superheater  pipes  will  be  at  a  temperature  of  700°  Fah., 
when  the  petroleum  employed  is  of  proof  40°  to  45° 
Baume.  For  heavier  oils  it  will  be  at  800°  Fah.  The 
rapidity  of  the  distillation  is  regulated  by  the  valve  on  the 
superheater,  and  it  can  be  made  perfectly  uniform  with 
very  little  attention.  There  is  no  danger  of  "boiling  over," 
as  in  distillation  over  open  fire,  which  cannot  always  be 
controlled.  ,  • 

The  naphtha  which  comes  over  first  to  the  extent  of  about 
fifteen  per  cent,  of  the  charge,  is  cut  off  at  58°  Baume 
generally,  and  permitted  to  run  into  a  receiver.  It  may  be 
redistilled,  to  purify  it  for  market. 

The  remainder  of  the  distillate  is  run  into  the  under 
ground  receiver,  a,  whence  it  is  pumped  into -the  agitator, 
H,  by  the  pump,  c.  It  is  allowed  to  settle  in  the  agitator 
for  three  hours,  and  any  water  from  it  is  run  off  by  the 
cock,  K.  The  acid,  one  and  a  half  to  two  per  cent.,  as 
desired,  is  then  added  to  the  oil  in  the  agitator,  and  the 
stirring  machinery  put  in  motion  by  the  gearing,  L,  and 
the  engine,  M.  When  atmospheric  agitation  is  used,  this 
gearing  is  not  required.  (See  cut  of  air  agitator,  page  84.) 
After  agitating  with  acid  for  three  hours,  the.  oil  is  settled 
for  two  hours,  and  the  acid  and  tar  thrown  down  by  it  are 
drawn  off  by  the  cock,  K.  Water  is  then  added  in  the  pro 
portion  of  one  quarter  of  the  oil,  and  the  oil  is  thoroughly 
washed  and  settled  for  two  hours.  The  water  is  then  drawn 
off,  and  the  alkali  wash,  previously  described  (page  158), 
is  added,  and  after  two  hours'  agitation,  is  permitted  to  set 
tle  for  three  hours,  or  until  the  oil  becomes  clear.  The 
agitator  is  kept  at  90Q  Fah.  by  the  steam-jacket,  R.  The 
oil  is  then  run  off  by  the  cock,  o,  into  the  tanks,  N,  N, 
where  it  may  be  allowed  to  settle  for  market. 


REFINING  BY   SUPERHEATED   STEAM.  165 

The  heavy  tar  remaining  in  the  still  is  drawn  off  by  a 
cock  placed  near  its  bottom,  after  a  few  hours,  or  when  it 
has  cooled  sufficiently  to  prevent  its  taking  fire  on  exposure 
to  the  air. 

In  the  drawings,  the  fctills  and  superheaters  are  in  sets 
each  side  of  the  boilers.  This  is  to  save  room,  and  to  have 
each  set  independent  of  the  other,  so  that  in  case  of  repairs 
being  needed  to  one  set,  the  whole  work  would  not  be 
deranged  and  hindered.  The  building  is  capable  of  two 
more  sets  of  stills  and  boilers  on  the  opposite  side,  thus 
doubling  its  capacity.  The  agitator  projects  a  convenient 
distance  above  the  floor  of  the  upper  story  to  admit  of 
easy  handling  of  the  carboys  of  acid  which  are  to  be 
emptied  into  it.  This  upper  floor  also  affords  space  for 
making  the  alkali  wash,  which,  when  caustic  soda  is  used, 
is  simply  by  dissolving  it  in  water  until  the  proof  is  36° 
by  Baume's  lye  meter.  When  soda  ash  is  employed,  the 
mode  already  described  will  give  it  sufficient  causticity. 
Barrels,  cans,  and  many  other  articles,  can  be  stored  on  this 
floor. 

Where  superheated  steam  is  not  used,  the  boilers  will 
not  be  required  of  the  size  shown  in  the  drawing.  The 
manipulation  with  the  acid  and  alkali  will  be  the  same, 
however.  In  regular  working,  one  of  each  set  of  stills 
should  be  kept  always  at  work,  the  fire  under  the  super 
heater  never  being  permitted  to  become  very  low,  or  so 
low  as  to  cause  cracking  of  the  pipes.  There  is  no  eco 
nomy  of  fuel  in  permitting  the  fire  to  die  out. 

The  syphon  upon  the  tail-pipe,  P,  is  useful  in  distilling 
Canada  petroleum,  or  the  tar  of  stearine  distillation,  as  it 
forms  a  trap,  which,  connecting  with  the  pipe,  Q,  carries  the 
offensive  gas  generated  to  the  outer  air. 

The  pumps  should  be  capable  of  pumping  the  whole 


166         COST  OF   ERECTING-  PETROLEUM   REFINERY. 

charge  in  one  hour ;  and  the  pump  us$d  for  pumping  crude 
petroleum  should  never  be  used  for  refined  oil.  When  the 
agitator  becomes  dirty,  or  after  each  settling  of  acid  or  al 
kali,  a  steam  jet  from  a  rubber  hose  maybe  used  against  its 
sides  with  good  effect.  Steam  at  forty  Ibs.  is  an  excellent 
scrubber,  and  is  very  convenient,  as  it  will  reach  corners 
and  crevices  very  readily. 

Care  must  be  taken  to  keep  all  vessels  used  in  oil  'mak 
ing  perfectly  clean.  A  jet  of  steam  carried  into  the  throat  of 
the  gooseneck,  by  a  pipe,  as  in  the  drawings  on  pages  148, 
149,  is  very  useful  in  cooling  down  after  the  charge  is  off. 
Such  a  refinery  as  the  one  just  described  can  be  erected  at 
the  following  cost : — 

IN  GOLD. 

4  Cast-iron  Stills,  7  feet  diameter,  4  feet  deep, 

contents  1145  gallons,    working  contents 

900  gallons,         .        .        .        .        .        $500        $2,000 

4  Condensing  Worms,  100  feet  long,  tapering 
from  4  inches  to  2±  inches,  in  tanks  com 
plete,  .  ...'".  .  .  200  800 

2  Superheaters,  each  60  feet  of  2-inch  pipe, 

in  furnace,  complete,  .      : ..        .          350  750 

2  Boilers,  36  inch  shell,  2  12-inch  flues,  16 

feet  in  length,  ......          400  800 

2  Washers  or  Agitators,  7  feet  diameter,  5 

feet  deep,  .....  140  280 

1  Petroleum  Settler,  10  feet  diameter,  8  feet 

deep,  .        .        .        .        .         .  200 

2  Underground  Receivers,  7  feet  diameter,  5 

feet  deep,            .....  100             200 
1  Underground  Receiver,  8  feet  diameter,  ef 
fect  deep,            100              100 

1  5-Horse  Engine,          .        .        .        .  300 

2  Steam  Pumps  (15  gallons  per  minute),  250              500 
Gearing  for  washers,       .         .         .         ,:  200 
Pipes,  cocks,  and  fittings,       .        .        .  500 


EEFUSE    OF   OIL   REFINERIES.  167 

Building  G2  feet  8  inches  long,  85  feet  wide, 
2  stories,  with  shaft  2  feet  by  2;  flue,  50 
feet  high,  complete,  .  .  .  4,000 

Setting  boilers  and  stills,       .        .        .  600 

$11,230 

It  is  capable  of  refining  2,000  gallons  of  petroleum  per 
day,  and  would  turn  out  about  1,500  gallons  of  refined 
oil  in  that  time.  It  would  require  one  superintendent,  two 
engineers,  four  still  men,  and  four  helpers. 

Tlae  cost  of  many  of  the  petroleum  refineries  has  been  less 
than  the  sum  named,  and,  of  a  few  of  them,  ten  times  greater. 

In  many  places  the  petroleum  refinery  consists  of  a  com 
mon  boiler  still  and  worm,  and  a  few  vats.  There  are  large 
works,  however,  in  which  the  details  are  well  carried  out. 
The  works  of  the  Liverpool  Oil  Eefining  Company,  at 
Bootle,  near  Liverpool,  under  the  direction  of  Andrew 
McLean,  are  very  complete  and  efficient.  Those  of  the 
Kerosene  Oil  Company,  on  Newtown  Creek,  Long  Island, 
New  York,  and  those  of  Samuel  Downer,  at  Corry,  Penn 
sylvania,  are  also  very  extensive  and  perfect. 

In  some  refineries,  when  air  is  used  as  an  agitator,  the 
pipes  communicating  with  the  air-pump  or  blower,  pass 
near  the  boiler  or  furnace  flues,  and  in  this  way  heat  the 
air  before  it  is  driven  into  the  oil.  It  is  supposed  that  hot 
air  is  a  better  oxidator  than  cold. 

REFUSE   OF   OIL  REFINERIES. 

Formerly  the  acids  and  alkalies  used  in  coal  oil  and 
petroleum  refining  were  considered  as  waste  materials,  but 
they  are  now  made  use  of  in  various  ways. 

The  acid  "  bottoms,"  so  called,  are  used  in  the  manufacture 

of  superphosphate  of  lime,  the  oil  being  partly  removed. 

12 


168  REFUSE   OF   OIL  REFINERIES. 

In  large  works  it  would  be  an  economy  to  recover  the 
alkali  by  evaporation  and  calcination.  This  was  success 
fully  done  by  James  Campbell,  of  Dayton,  Ohio,  while  en 
gaged  in  manufacturing  coal  oil  at  Charleston,  Kanawha 
county,  Western  Virginia,  some  years  ago. 

In  coal  oil  works  there  is  a  large  quantity  of  illuminat 
ing  gas  generated.  This  will  hereafter  be  put  to  use,  no 
doubt,  when  the  situation  of  the  works  will  admit  of  it. 

At  situations  where  coal,  or  the  supply  of  coke,  is  insuf 
ficient,  the  gas  may  be  most  advantageously  employed  for 
producing  steam,  and  for  all  the  distillations  required  in 
making  and  purifying  the  oils.  For  those  purposes  it  is 
superior  to  any  other  kind  of  fuel,  as  the  heat  may  be 
increased  or  diminished  instantaneously  at  the  will  of  the 
operator.  For  heating,  the  gas  requires  no  purification, 
and  recent  improvements  in  producing  heat  by  this  agent 
will  supply  the  highest  temperature  required. 

Coke. — When  the  coal  employed  affords  a  good  coke  it  is 
used  for  fuel ;  the  coke  of  Boghead  coal  and  the  bitumi 
nous  shales  is  of  little  value.  Some  of  the  asphaltums  and 
bitumens  afford  a  small  residue  of  fuel. 
*  Ashes. — Ashes  collect  around  oil  manufactories  in  large 
quantities,  and  they  differ  in  their  composition  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  coal  consumed.  In  all  cases  where 
they  contain  any  considerable  percentage  of  lime,  they  will 
be  found  valuable  fertilizing  agents  for  certain  soils. 

Ammoniacal  water. — Whenever  nitrogen  enters  into  the 
composition  of  the  coal,  shale,  or  other  material  distilled  in 
the  retorts,  ammoniacal  water  will  be  one  of  the  products, 
and  upon  it  the  lighter  oils  will  repose  in  the  receiving- 
vessels.  The  quantity  of  ammonia  is  often  very  con 
siderable. 

Sulphate  of  ammonia. — To  prepare  the  sulphate  of  ammo- 


\ 


REFUSE   OF   OIL   REFINERIES.  1GO 

nia  from  the  crude  ammoniacal  water,  the  latter  is  to  be 
saturated  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  evaporated  in  a  cast-iron 
boiler.  The  saturation  may  be  made  in  a  leaden  vessel, 
and  the  evaporation  performed  by  steam.  When  the  liquid 
has  attained  a  specific  gravity  of  1/400,  or  thereabouts,  it 
should  be  run  into  a  vessel  lined  with  lead,  and  crystal 
lized.  Another  mode  consists  of  distilling  the  ammoniacal 
water,  and  conducting  the  distillate  into  a  solution  of  sul 
phuric  acid  of  spec.  grav.  1*700.  In  this  case  the  sulphate 
of  ammonia  is  precipitated,  and  may  be  dipped  out  with 
ladles. 

Chlorohydride  of  ammonia  (sal  ammoniac). — To  form  the 
sal  ammoniac  of  commerce,  the  ammonial  water  is  to  be  satu 
rated  with  hydrochloric  acid  (muriatic  acid).  It  is  usually 
evaporated  in  vessels  of  lead,  and  then  run  into  wooden 
coolers.  The  salt  is  then  to  be  dried  in  stoves,  and  finally 
sublimed  in  iron  pots  with  large  domes.  Some  days  are 
required  to  complete  the  last  operation. 

The  pitch  resulting  from  distillation  of  coal  oil  or  petro 
leum  is  now  used  for  varnish,  roofing,  and  other  purposes. 

It  will  always  be  worth  the  attention  of  those  in  the  trade 
to  recover,  in  some  way,  a  part  at  least  of  the  value  of  the 
chemicals  employed.  Nothing  can  be  considered  as  abso 
lutely  a  waste  product  which  has  been  formed  in  the  vari 
ous  manipulations  of  the  oil  refiner. 

The  acid  bottoms,  or  the  tarry  matter  thrown  down  by 
the  acid  in  refining  petroleum,  is  now  said  to  be  successfully 
applied  to  the  production  of  aniline.  This  may,  in  some 
degree,  account  for  the  very  great  fall  in  the  price  of 
aniline,  but  it  is  probably  due  to  the  increasing  quantity 
manufactured  abroad.  The  various  aniline  dyes,  in  crys 
tals,  can  be  now  purchased  for  from  $7  to  $8  per  Ib.  Two 
years  ago  the  price  was  $200  for  the  same  quantity. 


170 


HYDROMETER. 


-  55 


— J50 

i 


LB 


-    35 


20 


16 


10 


BAUME  S    HYDROMETER. 
TABLE  OF  SPECIFIC  GRAVITIES  OF  OILS, 

CORRESPONDING  TO  DEGREES  OF  HYDROMETER. 


=3  1       r 

»    8    ri  .  J 

1  §..3  h 

iri 

Specific 
Gravity. 

"o   2     .  S 
§    a    3     « 

1  2  I  ? 

IPI 

«     £• 
1     •> 
&    | 

Degrees  of 
Hydrometer, 
i  Therm. 
60°  Fall. 

1     & 

o       •£ 

&,     S 

O2       c;5 

70 

0696 

49 

0-778 

28 

0-880 

69 

0-700 

48 

0-782 

27 

0-886 

68 

0-704 

47 

0-787 

26 

0-890 

67 

0-707 

46 

0-791 

25 

0-898 

66 

0-711 

45 

0-795 

24 

0-903 

65 

0-713 

44 

0-800 

23 

0-910 

64 

0-718 

43 

0-804 

22 

0-915 

63 

0-722 

42 

0-808 

21 

0-921 

62 

0725 

41 

0-813 

20 

0-927 

61 

0-729 

40 

0-819 

19 

0-933 

60 

0-733 

39 

0-824 

18 

0944 

59 

.0-737 

38 

0-828 

17 

0-940 

58 

0-741 

37 

0-833 

16    0-951 

57 

0745 

36 

0-838 

15 

0-959 

56 

0-749 

'  35 

0-843 

14 

0-966 

55 

0-753 

34 

0-848 

13 

0-971 

54 

0-757 

33 

0-854 

12 

0-979 

53 

0-761 

32 

0-860 

11 

0-986 

52 

0-765 

31 

'0-864 

10 

0-994 

51 

0-769 

30 

0-869 

50 

0-773 

29 

0-875 

PYROMETER.  171 

The  scale  in  common  use  for  ascertaining  the  specific 
gravity  of  fluids,  lighter  or  heavier  than  water,  is  that  of 
Baum&.  It  is  rarely  made  with  sufficient  care  to  insure 
accurate  correspondence  between  the  degrees  marked  upon  it 
and  the  true  specific  gravity..  It  is,  however,  accurate  enough 
for  general  purposes,  and  is  the  hydrometer  referred  to  in 
this  work,  accidentally  omitted  to  be  mentioned  in  its 
proper  place. 

Baume's  hydrometer  for  liquids  heavier  than  water, 
such  as  is  used  for  acids,  solutions  of  salts,  etc.,  is  the  one 
referred  to  when  the  strength  of  alkaline  solutions  is  men-- 
tioned,  unless  any  other  is  indicated  by  name. 

PYROMETER   FOR   COAL  AND   PETROLEUM   OILS. 

This  instrument  is  used  for  determining  the  exact  tem 
perature  at  which  an  oil  will  inflame.  Instead  of  being 
sold  by  proof  by  the  hydrometer,  the  oil  is  tested  and  rated, 
as  it  will  stand  110°  Fah.  or  115°  Fah.  without  taking  fire. 
The  cuts  below  are  representations  of  the  pyrometer  made 
by  Giuseppe  Tagliabue,  of  New  York. 

FIG.  1  is  a  perspective  view  of  the  PYROMETER,  as  it 
a'ppears  when  prepared  for  testing  the  temperature  of  the 
oil  at  the  moment  of  the  explosion  of  its  vapor.  FIG.  2 
represents  the  instrument  when  prepared  for  measuring  the 
inflaming  point  of  the  liquid  oil. 

The  bath,  B,  is  supported  in  its  cyliadical"  stand,  CJ  made 
of  metal,  which  has  an  aperture  near  the  bottom,  to  admit 
of  the  insertion  of  a  small  spirit  lamp  ;  when  this  lamp  is 
lighted,  the  oil  is  of  course  gradually  heated  by  the  water, 
and  it  emits  vapor  with  a  rapidity  proportioned  fo  its  vola 
tility  ;  this  vapor  is  mingled  with  atmospheric  air,  which 
enters  through  two  perforations,  d 'd,  (FiG.  1),  in  the  cover 


172  * 


CEMENT   FOR   IRON   JOINTS. 


FIG.  1. 


FIG.  2. 


of  the  cup,  A,  and  thus  forms  an  explosive  mixture  that 
ascends  into  the  cylinder,  F.  On  the  insertion  of  a  lighted 
taper  in  the  aperture,  e,  in  the  cylinder,  the  lowest  explosive 
temperature  of  the  oil  is  accurately  indicated  by  a  sligh't 
explosion  or  "  puff,"  and  a  simultaneous  inspection  of  the 
mercury  in  the  thermometer.  After  partly  removing  the 
cover  of  the  lamp  by  revolving  it,  and  holding  the  flame 
in  actual  contact  with  the  escaping  vapor  until  the  oil 
burns,  the  thermometer  will  precisely  indicate  the  degree 
of  inflammability. 

CEMENT  FOR  IRON  FLANGED   OR  SOCKET  JOINTS. 
Fine  iron  borings  or  filings,  5  Ibs. ;  sal  ammoniac,  in 
powder,  2  oz. ;  water   to  mix  to  a  paste,   which  is  well 
rammed  into  the  joint  by  blunt  chisels  to  suit.     The  filings 


COST  OF   ARTIFICIAL   LIGHT. 


173 


should  be  as  fine  as  possible.  In  flanged  joints  the  cement 
is  prevented  from  entering  the  pipe  by  a  thin  ring  of  iron 
placed  inside  the  line  of  the  bolt-holes.  The  bolts  should 
be  screwed  up  after  the  joint  is  made  with  the  cement. 

A  very  excellent  luting  for  joints  which  are  to  be  often 
broken,  such  as  manhole  plates,  is  made  of  fine  slacked  lime 
and  common  glue.  The  glue  should  be  dissolved  to  a  thick 
jelly,  and  the  lime  added,  until  a  stiff  paste  is  formed.  No 
more  should  be  mixed  than  wanted  for  immediate  use, 
which  may  apply  also  to  the  iron  cements.  In  making 
rust-joints,  as  the  iron  cementing  is  called,  the  flanges,  or 
sockets,  should  be  cleaned  with  a  solution  of  muriatic  acid 
before  the  joint  is  rammed.  A  good  fine  cla}7,  free  from 
sand  or  grit,  is  the  cheapest  luting  for  retort  lids. 

COST  OF  ARTIFICIAL  LIGHT. 


Illuminating  Material. 

s 
Cost  per  lb.  or.ga'lon. 

Consumption   in 
four  hours. 

Cost  of 
Llyht  per 
hour. 

Wax  candles  (red) 

$0  50  per  lb. 

532  grains 

1-068  cts. 

«        "         (green) 

458       " 

Paraffin   candles,  G's. 

0  60       " 

567       " 

1-395    " 

Tallow          "         G's. 

0  15       " 

563       " 

0-324   " 

Sperm           "         4's. 

0  40       " 

587      " 

0984    " 

Star               " 

0  25       " 

636       " 

0-G88    " 

Lard  oil  

1  20  per  Ballon. 

12*61  ozs.  Quid 

O-fjOfi     « 

Burning  fluid  .     .     . 

0  75        " 

5-09         « 

—  U«_/U 

0-746   " 

Kerosene     .... 

1  20        " 

3-89         " 

0-912    " 

ADDENDA. 

Petroleum  oil.      .  .  * 

1  00        " 

3-24         " 

0-860    " 

New  York  coal  gas  . 

2  50  per  1000  ft. 

4  feet  burner. 

1-000    " 

174  YIELI>  OF   PRINCIPAL   PETROLEUM   WELLS. 

The  foregoing  table,  relating  to  the  cost  of  Artificial 
Light,  has  been  extracted  from  the  statement  of  Dr.  Charles 
M.  Wetherill,  and  published  in  The  American  Gas-Light 
Journal,  May  1,  1860. 

LOCALITY,    DEPTHS,    AND   YIELD   OF    SOME    OF    THE    PRIN 
CIPAL   PETROLEUM   WELLS   OF   THE    UNITED   STATES. 

The  "  Burned"  well,  on  Oil  Creek,  Pennsylvania,  was 
completed  in  April,  1861,  at  a  depth  of  330  feet.  On  the 
afternoon  of  April  17,  while  the  workmen  were  engaged  in 
tubing,  a  stream  of  gas  suddenly  lifted  the  tools  out  of  the 
well  and  leaped  above  the  derrick  in  a  continuous  and 
sickening  volume.  The  engineer  put  out  his  fires,  and  then, 
with  the  rest  of  the  hands,  fled  from  the  sickening  odor  that 
oppressed  the  air.  A  crowd  collected,  some  one  in  which, 
approaching  too  near,  suddenly  ignited  the  gas,  which  went 
off  with  a  terrific  explosion,  setting  fire,  of  course,  to  the 
stream  of  oil  issuing  from  the  well.  The  conflagration  that 
ensued,  and  which  continued  for  four  days  and  nights, 
finally  destroyed  the  well.  The  lives  of  several  persons 
were  lost.  The  well  has  not  yielded  any  since. 

The  "  Brawley"  well,  at  a  depth  of  503  feet,  began  to 
flow  in  the  summer  of  1861,  yielding  600  barrels  per  day. 
After  flowing  a  year  and  a  half,  the  yield  began  to  diminish. 
It  speedily  ran  down  to  nothing. 

The  "  Van  Slyke"  well  «  struck  oil"  in  the  fall  of  1861, 
at  a  depth  of  about  500  feet,  and  first  flowed  at  the  rate  of 
600  barrels  per  day  It  also  gave  out  in  about  a  year  and 
a  half. 

The  "Big  Phillips"  well  struck  oil  in  October,  1861,  at 
a  depth  of  480  feet.  The  estimated  quantity  of.  the  original 
flow  was  from  3,000  to  4,000  barrels  per  day.  The  rush  of. oil 


YIELD   OF   PRINCIPAL   PETROLEUM  WELLS.  175 

was  so  overwhelming,  that  it  was  several  days  before  the 
well  could  be  tubed ;  40,000  to  50,000  barrels  of  oil  were 
lost  in  the  creek  Before  the  workmen  finally  got  control. 
The  well  was  subsequently  (like  every  other  well  yielding 
at  that  period)  not  permitted  to  flow  under  anything  like 
full  headway,  the  price  of  oil  being  so  low  as  not  to  pay. 
The  flow  began  to  decrease  about  the  latter  part  of  1862. 
In  this  year  another  well,  the  "  Woodford,"  was  put  down 
near,  which  tapped  the  same  vein  of  oil,  and  assisted  in 
diminishing  the  flow.  The  "  Big  Phillips"  is  now  running 
at  the  rate  of  325  barrels  per  day.  It  is  believed  to  be  the 
only  well  which  began  flowing  without  having  been  pre 
viously  tubed. 

The  "  Woodford"  well,  alluded  to  above,  was  originally 
a  1,500  barrel.  Its  yield  began  to  decrease  in  1863,  and 
finally  ceased.  Being  resuscitated,  it  is  now  pumping  50 
barrels  per  day. 

The  "Jones"  well,  put  down  in  the  latter  part  of  1862, 
within  30  feet  of  the  "  Woodford,"  tapped  the  same  vein, 
flowing  400  barrels  per  day.  Its  flow  decreased  gradually 
until  the  well  had  to  be  pumped.  It  is  now  doing 
nothing. 

The  "  Noble"  well  struck  oil  in  April,  1863.  Its  maxi 
mum  daily  yield  was  between  1,900  and  2,000  barrels.  It 
flowed  six  months  with  undiminished  volume,  when  it  be 
gan  to  decrease.  It  was  flowing  until  the  1st  of  February, 
1865,  at  the  rate  of  150  to  200  barrels  per  day,  when  an 
accident  stopped  it.  This  well  is  said  to.  have  netted  its 
owners  over  $3,000,000. 

The  "Empire"  well  was  sunk  in  the  fall  of  1861,  and 
began  flowing  from  2,500  to  3,000  barrels  per  day.  The 
flow  continued  diminishing  gradually  for  something  over 
two  years,  when  it  stopped.  The  well  lay  idle  about  a 


176  YIELD   OF   PRINCIPAL   PETROLEUM  WELLS. 

year.  In  the  summer  of  1864,  an  air-pump  was  applied, 
which  caused  the  well  to  resume  flowing  lightly — five  or 
six  barrels  per  day.  The  flow  then  slowly  increased  to 
140  barrels.  The  well  is  now  yielding  110  barrels  per 
day. 

The  "  McKinley"  flowing  well,  on  Oil  Creek,  is  remark 
able  for  the  permanence  of  its  yield.  It  has  given  from 
50  to  60  barrels  per  day  for  nearly  three  years.  It  is  under 
very  excellent  management. 

The  "  Williams  and  Stanton"  wells,  three  in  number, 
yield  150  barrels  per  day  in  all.  These  wells  must  have 
pierced  the  same  reservoir,  as  it  is  found  that  by  stopping 
two  of  them,  the  oil  will  flow  from  the  third  at  the  above 
rate. 

The  "Keed"  well,  on  Cherry  Kun,  gives  280  barrels 
per  day. 

The  "Fox"  well,  at  Petroleum  Centre, yields  160 barrels 
per  day. 

In  Western  Virginia,  the  "Burning  Spring"  well,  the 
"Llewellyn,"  and  others  have  been  noted  for  their  yield  of 
oil. 

It  has  been  computed,  that  in  the  beginning  of  the  pre 
sent  year,  the  district  of  Oil  Creek — the  most  productive  of 
the  Pennsylvania  oil  regions,  and  embracing  an  area  of 
3,200  acres — contained  480  wells  already  sunk,  542  wells 
in  progress,  and  189  producing  wells.  The  average  daily 
yield  from  this  district  was  estimated  at  4,000  barrels. 


INDEX 


PACK 

Acids,     '.       v    .    .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .  128 

Agitators,        .       ' .     . " .        .               " .       ' .        .        .        .  84,  85 

Action  of  sulphuric  acid,        ".       '.       '.         .         .        . .       .  129 

nitric  acid,       .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  129 

Acid,  sulphuric,        .        .        .        .        .       ".        .        .        .  154 

Albert  coal,     ......       '.        .        .        .  '      49 

Alkalies,          ...........  128 

Ammonia,       .      \        .         .        '.        ...        .        .          152,168 

Ammoniacal  water,         .        .        .        .        .        .        .         .  168 

Ammonia,  sulphate  of,     .         .         .         .         .         .        .         .  168 

Anthracene, 100 

Aniline,  ...........         103,  104 

Aniline  dyes,  .      '  '.        '.        '.         .        .         .        .          105,  106,  108 

Alliole,    .         .        .                                           .        .        .        .  102 

Asphaltum,      .        .                 .                 .                •.        .        .  49 

distillates  of,          .         .                                 '.-.         .  124 

Ashes,     .............  168 

Artificial  light,  cost  of,    .        ' 173 

Australian  coals,      .                 .                          .                •  53 

Austen,  J.  H.,         .'.>..         .'       .        .        .     *   .  10 

Austen,  G.  W.,        .........  10 

Bitumen  of  Trinidad,      .       '.        .       -.        .  \    .        .        .  41 

Cuba,  .         .       '.        .       '.        .        .        .        .  42 

Dead  Sea,    ..'......  Ill 

Virginia,       ........  54 

South  America,   .......  42 

Canada  West, 40 

West  India  Islands,     .        .        .        .        .        '.  42 

California,    .         .       •.       '.         .         .  "     .         .  17 

oils  of,.        .        .       v      -.        .       -.        .        .  54,55 

Baku,  petroleum  of,          ...'.'.                         .  43 

Burmah,     "           "..'.'.  43 

Bituminous  substances,  table  of  products,      .        .        .        .  56 

clays  and  sands,  ......  55 


INDEX. 


Brooman's  patent,  .         .         .        ...        .-.        I        .  140 

Bodman's  patent,    .         .                  .         .         .         .        .  141 

Bancroft's  patent,    .         .         .         .                  .         .        ...      ..  143 

Buildings, •     ,.      •  .          148,149,162,163 

Bicarburetted  hydrogen,.         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  123 

Benzole, 102 

nitro,         .        .         .         .         .         ...         .  103 

Brick  ovens,                              * 64 

Campbell,  James, 168 

Cements,          .         .         . 172 

Coal,  varieties  of,     .         .         .         .         .         .         .         •  "      •  44 

Composition  of, .  44,  45 

Effects  of  heat  upon, 12,  13 

Boghead,        ...........  47 

Albert,   ..        \         .......  49 

Breckenridge,         ........  50 

Australian,     ..........  57 

Table  of  products  of, 56 

Products  of  the  distillation  of, 93 

Coal  distilled  for  gas  and  for  oils, 110 

Coal  tar, 94,  95 

volatile  bases  in, 94 

Candle  tar, 51 

Caoutchene,    ..........  115 

Cedriret,          ._ 92 

Carburetted  hydrogen, 123 

Chlorohydride  of  ammonia, 169 

Caustic  alkalifsolution, 158 

recovery  of,                .         .         .         .        •        •  168 

Carbolic  acid, '.        .        .        .  100 

Canada,  petro^um  of,      ......'..  40 

Choke  damp,  .         .         .         .         .         •         ...         .         .  123 

Coke  ovens,     .       '.       '.        .       '.       '.       '.        .        •  •       .68,69 

Crude  coal  oils,  treatment  of,           .         .                  .         .         .  152 

Condensers,      .         .         .         ....         •         •         •         •         •  71,  72 

Continual  distillation,      ...         .•'.'.         .         .         .  153 

Copnomor, 90 

coke,  \    ;.  • ;.    j    ;.    \ ies 

Cumole,  .        .  .     - 

Derrick,  .         .         .        '.                  27 

Dundonald,  Earl  of,        '. -.     .^         8 

Densities  of  petroleum,  .         .         .         .        .         .         .'  114 

Dumoulin  and  Cotelle's  method,      .         .         .        .        ,        .  143 


INDEX.  179 


Distillery,  coal  oil,  .-.•.-'.        .        .        .        •  148 

Distilling  by  superheated  steam,      .*•.'-."-.      -.        .  164 

Distillation,  continual,     .       • .       • .       • .       • .       • .         .         •  153 

Disrillate,  first,       •.      -.      • ,      -.       •.'•".         .         .         .  153 

Disti  lation  of  wood,        •       ••       ••       ••       ••         •         •         •  89 

Drake,  E.  L.,  .     .-.     "-.      -.      •.      • 21 

Downer,  Samuel,    .       •.  -.        .        .        .         .        .    •     167 

Early  records,        •.       •.       •  .*     •.       ".       ••       •«         .         . 

Effects  of  heat,  .    •.       -.       •.       -.       -.       •.       -.       -.        .  13 

Eupion,  .       •  .•      •..     .-.      •.      -.      -.      • .-       .        .        .  90 

Ferris,  A.  C.,  .       -.       -.      •.      -.      -.-.-.        .        .  21 

Formula,        •.       •.       -.       •.         .         .         .         .         .-        .  119 

Fire  damp,     • .       • .         .         .         .       • .       • .         .         .         .  123 

Germany,  oil  manufactories  in,       .       •.        .        .         .         .  135 

German  methods,    .      •  .      •  .      •  .      •  .        .        .         .         .  135 

Gas,       •  .        .      •  .        .  '      .      -.        .        .         .         ..       .  168 

Gases  of  coal  mines,       .........  46 

Gesner,  Henry,     •.       .......         .         .         .  '               .  77 

Hydro-carbon  oils,        •  .         .         .         .  c      .         .         .         .  121 

Hydro-carbons,       .      •  .         .  •      .      • 122 

Hydrogen, ^       ...  122 

Homologous  series  obtained  from  coal  tar,      ....  124 

Bitumen  of  Trinidad,         .  124 

Cuba,      .         .  125 

Kanawha  coal,.  .         .         .  125 

Caoutchouc,        .        ...  12G 

Hydrometers,        •  .      •  .      •  .      •  .'     • .      • .        .-       .        .  ,      170 

Heat,  effects -of,     •.-.-.              .....        .        .  13 

Hales  and  Watson,        •  .       • .       • .       • .       •  •    •     •         .         .  12 

Impurities  in  hydrocarbon  oils, *         .  127 

Kerosene,  process  of  manufacture,  .         .        .        .        .         133,  135. 

Kerosene,  A,  B,  and  C,  .         .        .      • .        .        .1               .  135 

Kerosene  Oil  Company,  .         .         .         •,        •         •        -         »  167 

Laurent,        - ,     •    .•        .  8 

Leucoline,     • .      • .         .        .         .         .         .        ....  101 

Mansfield,  patent  of, 131 

process  of,       .         .         .        .        .        .        .        .  131 

McLean,  Andrew,  .         .                         87 

Naphtha,  rectified,  from  coal  tar,     .       -  .      .  *       .  f         .        .  102 

Nitric  acid,  -  .      . .      .  • .  .      .  .      .  .        .        .  129 

Naphthalin,     .      ..        .         .  99 

Ovens,  brick,'  .      •  .      ..  .     • •  .      .  .        .        .  64 

Odorine,        -.      -,      -. *  100 


180  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Organic  and  homologous  compounds,      .       ^.      ^.        ^'       .  117 

Oils,  oxygen,  .       ..        .'       .'       .       •.;..-.     .        .        .  116 

Oils,  hydrocarbon, ,  •  121 

Organic  compounds,  table  of,  .         .         .        .        .        ;        .  117 

Oils,  crude,  from  coals,    .         .         .         .         .         .         .        .  152 

treatment  of,         .         .         .         .'        .                  .  .  152 

Oil-well  tools  and  machinery,          .         .         .         .  .    27,35 

Oil  lands,  value  of,  .         .         •         .         .         .         .        „        .  26 

Picoline, 100 

Paranaphthalin, 100 

Petroleum,  origin  of, .  •  "    .  •  18 

of  the  United  States, 17 

wells,  .                 '.     ,  ..  20 

of  Canada,   .         .         .         .        <.         .         .     '    .  40 

export  of, 22 

of  Trinidad,          ..."....  41 

of  Cuba,  West  India  Islands,  and  So.  America,  .  42 

of  Burmah,  Java,  Rangoon,          .         .         .         .  43 

refinery,        .         .         .         .  .         .         162,  163 

purification  of,       ....         .         .         .         158,159 

varieties  of, 38 

refinery,  cost  of, 166 

Products  of  the  distillation  of  wood,      .....  89 

Picamar,         . .     .    +         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  90 

Patents,  .       ...  *       .        .        .         .         .         .        .          131,  146 

Pittical, 92 

Peat,  products  of, 57 

Pyroxanthine, 92 

Process  of  Mansfield,      .         .        .         .         .         .    •     .        .  131 

Young,.         .         .         .         .        .     ...v       .        .  132 

for  kerosene,       .         .         .         . .       .        »        .          134,  135 

Patent  of  Wagenmann,  .        .        .....        .        .         .  135 

Peat  Company,  Irish,      .         .         ....         .         .         .  57 

Permanganate  of  potash,       .'.       ..       ......         .         .  130 

Pitch,      .         .         .         .,....-..         .         .         .  169 

Paraffin,           .         .         .         ,       ,.' 91 

process  for  refining,  .    • 156 

Receivers,      ..       ..       ... 151 

Retorts,  revolving, •.  63 

vertical, 65 

stationary, _  60 

clay, .                         ;  66 

Reichenbach, '•  8 


INDEX.  181 


PACK 


Refuse  of  oil  refineries, 167 

Refinery  for  petroleum, 162 

Silliman,  Prof., 17 

Stills, 74,  75,  80 

Still  and  condenser, 78 

Selligue,  patent  of,           ........  131 

Sulphate  of  ammonia,     .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  168 

Sal  ammoniac,         .         .         . 169 

Sulphuric  acid, .  154 

Superheated  steam  apparatus,         ......  86 

Toluole, 98 

Vohl's  process,         .........  139 

Washers,  or  agitators, 81,  85 

Worms,  condensing, 70,  150 

Wood,  products  of  the  distillation  of, 89 

Young,  James,  patents  of, 9 


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Messrs.   SPOFFORD,  TILESTON  &  Co.,  New  York. 
"       CALDWELL  &  MORRIS, 
"       GALWAY,   CASADO  &  TELLER, 

B.  C.  MORRIS,  Es,a,  Pres.  Columbian  Ma 
ri.ne  Ins.  Co.,  New  York. 


OIL  WELL  TUBES,  PUMPS, 

WELL  BORING   TOOLS,  CAST  IRON   DRIVING  PIPE,  WROUGHT 

IRON  PIPE  AND  TOOLS  FOR  FITTING  SAME:  STEAM 

VALVES,    BRASS    COCKS,    WATER    GAUGES, 

STEAM  WHISTLES,  STEAM  AND  HOT 

WATER   CARVING  TABLES 

FOR  HOTELS. 

Store,  No.  76  John  Street. 

Brass  Foundry,  Machine  Shop,  and  Manufactory,  29,  31,  and  33  Platt  Street, 

New  York. 
JAMES    O-    MORSE    &    OILLIS. 

THE    WOODWARD 

STEAM  PUMP  MA¥UFACTURING  COMPANY, 

Manufacturers  of  WOODWARD'S  PATENT  IMPROVED  SAFETY 

STEAM  PUMP  &  FIRE  ENGINE, 


AND   ALSO 


Patent  Oil  Pump  and  Oil  Machinery,  and   Steam,  Water,  and 
«as  Fittings  of  all  kinds. 

Also,  Wholesale  and  Eetail  Dealers  in  WROUGHT  IRON"  PIPE,  BOILER 
.TUBES,  etc. 


I^o.    7"7    IBTCKKM^l^    STREET, 

Between  Gold  and  Cliff  Streets.  NEW      YORK* 

GEO.  OT.  WOODWARD,  President. 

A.  C.  FERRIS, 

197  PEARL  STREET,  NEW  YORK. 

Having  from  the  first  —  1857  —  been  identified  with  Petroleum  and  Oil 
Lands,  offers  his  services  to  those  desirous  to  invest  in  Petroleum  Companies- 
or  Oil  Lands  —  in  any  part  of  the  United  States  or  Canada.  Has  given  his 
whole  attention  to  the  business  for  the  last  eight  years. 


OIL,  SALT,  AND  COAL  COMPANY, 
Capital,  $500,000. 

Office,  66  Wall  Street,  New  York. 

A.  C.  FERRIS,  PRESIDENT.  B.  F.  JUDSON,  SECRETARY, 

Have  for  sale  Amber  "Wool  Oil — (natural  Petroleum) — in  quantities  to  suit 
purchasers.  This  oil  possesses  superior  qualities  for  greasing  wool,  and  costs 
but  half  the  price  of  Lard  Oil.  See  notice  on  page  38  of  this  work.  Address 
orders  as  above.  • 


McKINLEY    OIL    COMPANY. 


WELLS    ON    OIL    CREEK,     PENNSYLVANIA. 


Capital,   ......    $250,000. 

IN  25,000  SHAKES  OF  $10  EACH. 


TRUSTEES: 

MORRIS  FRANKLIN,  New  York.          I        C.  MCKINLEY,  Oil  City,  Pa. 
JAMES  N.  LAWTON,        "  J.  J.  YANDERGRIFT,     " 

SIDNEY  CORNELL,  .      GEORGE  DAVIS,  New  York. 

JOHN  H.  COLEMAN,  Oil  City,  Pa.        | 

PRESIDENT  MORRIS  FRANKLIN. 

SECRETARY D.  W.  GILLETT. 

TREASURER..    "WALTER  E.  LAWTON. 

REGISTRAR.  . JAMES  FREELAND. 

SUPERINTENDENTS BREWER  &  LOOMIS. 

Office  at  the  Petroleum  and  Mining  Emporium  of 

PERKINS,    FREELAND    &    CO., 
71  BROADWAY,  NEW  YORK. 

FOUNTAIN     PETROLEUM     CO~ 


ON  OIL,  CREEK,  CHERRY  RUN,  AND 
CHERRY  TREE  RUN,  PENNSYLVANIA. 


Capital,.    .      .....    50,000  Shares, 

PAR  VALUE  OF  SHARES,  $5  EACH. 


PRESIDENT MORRIS  FRANKLIN, 

SECRETARY D.  W.  GILLETT. 

REGISTRAR JAMES  FREELAND. 

TREASURER WALTER  E.  LAWTON. 

GENERAL  SUPERINTENDENTS BREWER  &  L£OMIS. 


TRUSTEES: 


SIDNEY  CORNELL,  New  York. 
JAMES  C.  WILSON, 
MORRIS  FRANKLIN,        " 


JOHN  H.  COLEMAN,  Oil  City,  Pa. 
NELSON  C.  BREWER,  Cleveland  0 
J.  M.  WHITCOMB,  Buffalo,  N.  Y 


GEORGE  DAVIS, 

Office  at  the  Petroleum  and  Mining  Emporium  of 

PEiRKIlSrs,    FREELAND    <fe    CO., 
71  BROADWAY,  J¥EW  YORK. 


BUTLER  &  RICHARDSON, 

No.  126  Maiden  Lane,  New  York. 


MANUFACTUEEES  OF 


Paraffine  Machinery  Oils, 

MIXING    OILS, 

BUTLER'S    GAS    OILS,    LIGHTFOOT'S    CURRYING    OILS,    PARA 
NAPHTHALINE  YARNISH,  PETROLEUM  TAR. 


FACTORIES, 

Corner  WILLIAM  and  RICHARDS  STS.,  South  Brooklyn,  and 
JOHNSON  ST.  (near  Gas  Works),  Albany. 

JOHN  BXJTLEE.  J.  E.  BICIIARDSON. 

JESSUP    &    CHILDS, 

DEALERS  IN 

PETROLEUM  &  BENZINE, 

IMPORTERS  AND  MANUFACTURERS  OF 

WHITE    LEAD,    ZINC, 

OILS,    WINDOW    GLASS,    S6C., 
127  Maiden  Lane, 

KT  E  'W      YORK 


JAMES  L.  MORGAN  &  CO., 


MANUFACTURERS 


Dye   Stuffs,   Dye    Woods,  and   Acids, 
47  Fulton  Street,  New  York. 


Ijili.oTHonry  Libert  <fe  i5rps.5>;'fluliun,S:.N. 

JAS.   L.   MORGAX,  OFFICE 

j.  M.  GOETCIIIUS,  Hudson   River   Chemical    Works, 

E.  L.  KALBFLEISCH.  47  FULTON   STREET. 

Particular  attention  given  to  the  manufacture  of 
Sulphuric  Acid  (Oil  of  Vitriol),  for  Coal  Oil  and 
Petroleum  Refiners'  use. 


OeiTistio    Soda,    Sod.su 
and  other  Chemicals  constantly  on  hand. 


JAMES  I,  MORGAN  &  CO. 


DYE    STUFFS, 

DYE    WOODS, 


AND 


ACIDS, 


4?  ITnlton  Street, 


NEW    YORK. 


GEORGE  WELTDEN  GESNER, 

CONSULTING 

CHEMIST    &    ENGINEER, 

59     WILLIAM  STREET, 

NEW    YORK. 


Assays  and  Analyses  of  Ores,  Metals,  Earths,  and 
Commercial  Articles. 

Plans  and  Estimates  of  Works  for  Refining  Petro 
leum,  Manufacturing  Coal  Oil,  Acids,  Salts,  and 
Chemicals  in  general. 

The  Recovery  of  Waste  or  Spent  Chemicals  par 
ticularly  attended  to. 

Geological  and  Mining  Surveys  and  Reports.  Mr. 
Gesner's  association  with,  and  instruction  by  his  late 
father,  Dr.  Abraham  Gesner,  during  many  years  in 
the  Geological  Surveys  of  the  lower  British  Provin 
ces,  have  given  him  an  extensive  practical  knowledge 
of  Geology,  Mineralogy,  and  Mines. 

Examinations  and  Reports  upon  Petroleum  Wells 
and  Petroleum  Lands. 

Consultations  upon  subjects  involved  in  the  practi 
cal  application  of  Chemistry. 

Although  engaged  in  a  regular  Chemical  Manu 
facturing  business  in  New  York,  Mr.  Gesner  is  ena 
bled  to  give  prompt  attention  to  any  business  en 
trusted  to  him,  and  can  refer  to  those  who  have 
favored  him  with  commissions  during  the  past  eight 
een  years. 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


12  1936 


•/UN   24 


LD  21-100»n-7,'33 


101146 


